Mykola Blyznyuk, Natalia Bida
National University of Chernivtsi
PARADIGM OF PHRASAL VERBS IN ENGLISH
FICTIONAL DISCOURSE
Every language uses a system of devices to derive words from
derivational bases [11; 12]. The words derived on the basis of one and the same
lexeme make up the class of words, including monowords and phrase-words. E.Y.Morokhovska
suggests that in accordance with the peculiarities of their stem-structure,
English nominative words should be classed into: simple words (fox, go, see),
affixed words (fisher, shorten, betake), compound words (swim-suit,
cold-blooded), composite words (make up, go down, take in),
phrase-words (to take place, to give a push) [7, p. 67-69].
The objective of this article is to reveal the peculiarities of
functioning of English phrasal verbs in literary discourse. For this purpose we
analyse the status of phrasal verbs in modern English, elucidate the notion of
a literary discourse, and establish the paradigm of phrasal verbs in fictional
discourse. The investigation is carried out on the material of fiction by E.R.Burroughs,
D.Defoe, Ch.Dickens, W.Collins, J.Conrad, Th. Dreiser, J.
Austen, L.F.Baum.
Phrasal verbs are analytical formations of a word-status [7, p. 68].
They have in their structure an auxiliary derivational element which causes
semantic shifting of the stem. A very large group of composite units is
represented by composite verbs with adverbial postfixes which may be of
word-derivational value. They are usually added
to the “verbs of directed movement” and specify the directionality of the
denoted movement. Different nominative words are capable of forming such pairs:
to run – to run away; to jump – to
jump down; to sit – to sit down, etc. The adverbial postfixes
bear very clear significative circumstantial meanings and specify the semantics
of the stem itself. The verbs with postfixes seem to be specialized variants of
nominative verbs not their nominative counterparts: give in, give up, bring up, cope
with, carry out, take after.
Discourse, as defined by M.Foucault [4, p. 15], refers to ways of
constituting knowledge, together with social practices, forms of subjectivity
and power relations which are inherent in such knowledge. Discourses are more
than ways of thinking and producing meaning. They constitute the ‘nature’ of
the body, unconscious and conscious mind and emotional life of the subjects
they seek to govern.
Discourse is determined as the product of speech activity or as a text
in its oral form or as a text in social context [6, p. 6].
New Webster’s Dictionary of the English Language [9, p. 448] provides
the following definitions of “discourse”:
Table 1
Definitions of Discourse
|
(n) discourse |
|
|
(v) discoursed, discoursing,
discourses |
|
The scholars N. Asher and A. Lascarrides suggest that the definition of
discourse operates with the following meanings: any segment of signs (meanings)
larger than a sentence; any kind of message; a specific ensemble of ideas,
concepts, categories and so on, that are produced, reproduced and transformed
in a particular set of practices [1, p. 45].
Thus, discourse is a stretch of language in use, taking on a particular meaning
in the context for its users; it is usually perceived by them as purposeful,
meaningful, and connected. This quality of perceived purpose, meaning, and
connection is known as coherence. That is why discourse is a coherent stretch
of language.
A narrative discourse is a discourse that presents an account of events,
usually in the past, that employs verbs of speech, motion, and action to
describe a series of events that are contingent one on another, and are
typically focuses on one or more performers of actions (narrative and literary
discourses here are considered synonymous).
Cultural consideration in discourse determines cultural markation of a
literary work. L.Wittgenstein closely connects language and culture with
societal conventions, norms, and rules falling under the general rubric of
culture. They are “customs” for L.Wittgenstein: “To obey a rule, to make a
report, to give an order, to play a game of chess, there are customs” [8, p.
53].
L.Wittgenstein is not the first or only language analyst to make such
connections with regard to discourse. That culture heavily influences discourse
in systematic ways is the central tenet of the approach to discourse analysis
known as the ethnography of communication, which examines how culturally
generated roles determine the underlying structure of discourse. For these
ethnographers, “culture encompasses or embraces a totality of knowledge and
practices,” including discourse [8, p. 54].
Phrasal verbs in a literary discourse
deserve a more detailed study from phraseological viewpoint. An almost
unlimited number of such units may be formed by the use of simpler, generally
monosyllabic verbs combined with elements that have been variously treated as
“adverbs”, “preposition-like adverbs”, “postpositions of adverbial origin”,
“postpositives” or even “postpositive prefixes”. The problem on the whole is a
very complex one and has been in the limelight of many scholars [3; 5].
The verbs most frequent in phrasal
units are: bear, blow, break, bring, call, carry, cast, catch, come, cut,
do, draw, drive, eat, fall, fly, get, give, go, hurry, hold, keep, lay, let,
look, make, move, play, pull, put, ride, run, sell, set, shake, show, shut,
sit, speak, stand, strike, take, throw, turn, walk, etc. To these the
adverbs: about, across, along, around, away, back, by, down, forth, in, off,
on, out, over, past, round, through, to, under, and particularly frequent up
are added.
The pattern is especially common with
verbs denoting motion. Some examples possible with the verb go are: go
ahead – “to proceed without hesitation”; go away – “to leave”; go
back – “to return”; go by – “to pass”; go down – (a) “to
sink” (for a ship); (b) “to set” (of the sun, moon, etc.); (c) “to be
remembered” (of people or events); (d) “to become quiet” (of the sea, wind,
etc.) and many other combinations. The list of meanings for go down could
be increased. Units of this type are remarkable for their multiple meaning. For
example, bring up may mean not only “to rear from childhood, educate”
but also “to cause to stop”, “to introduce to notice”, “to make prominent”,
etc.
Only combinations forming integral
wholes, the meaning of which is not readily derived from the meaning of the
components, so that the lexical meaning of one of the components is strongly
influenced by the presence of the other, are referred to set expressions or
compounds. For example, come off – “to take place”, fall out – “to
quarrel”, give in – “to surrender”, leave off – “to cease”.
Alongside with these combinations showing idiomatic character there are free
combinations built on the same pattern and of the same elements. In these the
second element may:
(1) retain its adverbial properties
of showing direction (come : : come back; go : : go in; turn :
: turn away);
(2) change the aspect of the verb (eat:
: eat up; speak : : speak out; stand : : stand up; the
second element then may mark the completeness or the beginning of an action);
(3) intensify the meaning of the
action (end : : end up; talk : : talk away).
The second elements with the
exception of about and around may be modified by right, which acts as an intensifier suggesting the
ilea of extremity: He pushed it right down. Sometimes the second element
serves to create an evaluatory shade, so that a verb of motion + about
means “move here and there” with an implication of light-mindedness and
waste of time: climb, drive, float, run, walk, etc. about.
There are also cases where the
criteria of motivation serving to differentiate between compounds, free phrases
and set expressions do not appear to yield definite results, because motivation
is partially retained, as for instance in drop in, put on or shut up,
so that the existence of boundary cases must be admitted.
The borderline between free phrases
and set expressions is not always sharp and distinct [2, p. 120]. It is quite
natural, as set expressions originate as imaginative free phrases and only
gradually become stereotyped. So this is another instance where understanding
of synchronic facts is incomplete without diachronistic considerations.
Lexicographical source [9, p. 1565] defines the phrasal verb to take
in in the following way:
1) to admit or bring into one’s house;
2) to encompass or include;
3) to comprehend;
4) to accept for payment;
5) to furl, as a sail;
6) to note with the eyes, observe;
7) to visit;
8) to cheat;
9) to absorb into the body.
Our investigation of fictional discourse shows that some of the meanings
of the verb to take in are realized in the text more often than others. For example:
Table 2
Realization of Dictionary Meanings of the Phrasal Verb
to take in in Fiction
|
Dictionary meanings of the phrasal
verb to take in |
Examples from English fiction |
|
1) to admit or bring into
one’s house |
But when he saw the canoe
come down the river and take in Rokoff, when he saw it make for the
Kincaid, he realized that only by possessing himself of a canoe could he hope
to transport the beasts of the pack within striking distance of the enemy
(E.R.Burroughs. The Beast of Tarzan) [10]. ... people come frequently
with bundles and small parcels to those inns, and call for such carriers or
coaches as they want, to carry them into the country; and there generally
attend women, porters’ wives or daughters, ready to take in such
things for their respective people that employ them (D.Defoe. Mole Flanders)
[10]. |
|
2)
to encompass or include |
I had some difficulty in
persuading him to take in my name, though I could not get from him the
nature of his objection (J.Conrad. Twixt Land and Sea) [10]. “We’ll make a four-handed
game of it, and take in Groves,” said the stout man (Ch.Dickens. The
Old Curiosity shop) [10]. |
|
3)
to comprehend |
I doubted if her mind was in
a fit condition to take in what I had said to her (W.Collins. The
Moonstone) [10]. That’s as much as the
ordinary male mind can take in; and that will do (W.Collins. Man and
Wife) [10]. |
|
4) to accept for payment |
... and they determined to
dispatch it by the next steamboat going the right way, that might call to take
in wood at Eden ... (Ch.Dickens. Life and Adventures of Martin
Chuzzlewit) [10]. The time wore on, and other
steamboats coming from the point on which their hopes were fixed, arrived to take
in wood ... (Ch.Dickens. Life and Adventures of Martin Chuzzlewit) [10]. |
|
5) to furl, as a sail |
“More than we want,” the
captain replied, shortly; and then, to my astonishment, ordered the crew
aloft to take in sail (W. Collins. The
Queen of Hearts) [10]. |
|
6) to note with the eyes,
observe |
Will not your mind misgive
you when you find yourself in this gloomy chamber – too lofty and extensive
for you, with only the feeble rays of a single lamp to take in its
size – its walls hung with tapestry exhibiting figures as large as life, and
the bed, of dark green stuff or purple velvet, presenting even a funereal
appearance? (J. Austen. Northanger Abbey). [10] Of course I did not take
in all these details upon the instant of my capture, for I was busy with
other matters (E.R.Burroughs. The Land That Time Forgot) [10]. |
|
7) to visit |
Guess I’ll drop down a bit,
and take in the sights (L.F.Baum. The Master Key) [10]. I take in “The Times”
regularly, and you may trust my wary eye not to miss the right advertisement
(W.Collins. Armadale) [10]. |
|
8) to cheat |
“Well, and don’t you think,
old feller,” remonstrated Mr. Weller, “that if you let your master take in
this here young lady, you’re a precious rascal?” (Ch.Dickens. The Pickwick Papers) [10]. |
|
9) to absorb into the body |
“And now,” said Joe, “you
ain’t that strong yet, old chap, that you can take in more nor one
additional shovel-full to-day” (Ch.Dickens. Great Expectations) [10]. |
The data of our research represented in figures are presented in the
following table.
Table 3
Quantitative results of the research
|
Meaning |
Number of examples |
Percentage |
|
1 |
7 |
19,4 % |
|
2 |
2 |
5,5 % |
|
3 |
7 |
19,4 % |
|
4 |
3 |
8,3 % |
|
5 |
1 |
2,8 % |
|
6 |
11 |
30,5% |
|
7 |
3 |
8,3 % |
|
8 |
1 |
2,8 % |
|
9 |
1 |
2,8 % |
Thus, we may come to the conclusion that the most frequently used
meaning of the phrasal verb to take in is to note with the eyes,
observe; next in frequency comes the meaning to admit or bring into
one’s house and to comprehend.
We view the perspective of our further research in the analysis of
quantitative characteristics of phrasal verbs in fictional discourse of
different authors.
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