Дарменова А.Е

ЕНУ им.Л.Н.Гумилева,Казахстан

ELEMENTS INVOLVED IN LEARNING A SECOND LANGUAGE

Language learning is complex, whether the language is acquired in infancy as a first language or later in life as a second or third language. The learning process consists of acquiring a language system, rather than learning a series of disconnected components. A language system consists of not only grammatical rules and vocabulary, but also the proper way to use language, such as requesting information, inviting a friend to a social event, thanking a person for a kind act, or greeting a stranger. In addition, a language system includes discourse, whereby speakers learn what to say to whom and when.

Over the years many methods for teaching a new language have evolved. The most longstanding method and the one that has been most heavily influenced by the work of psychologists is the Audio-Lingual Method (Rivers, 1964). The goal in this method is to overlearn the target language through communicative drills directed by the teacher. The idea is to use the target language to the point that it becomes automatic and in the process new habits in the language are formed that overcome the tendency to rely on first language habits. In this method new vocabulary and grammatical structures are presented through teacher-directed dialogue drills, as well as heavy reliance on language lab drills organized around imitation and repetition drills. Students' correct responses are positively reinforced. Listening and speaking in the second language are the objectives in this method. Students' native language habits are considered as interfering, thus the use of the native language is restricted in the classroom. This method emphasizes proper pronunciation, simple everyday dialogues, and correct grammar.In recent years there has been a gradual shift in language education to an approach that favors communicative competence in the second language. This is called the Communicative Approach. The goal of this approach is to teach students the new language through classroom activities that engage students in the process of negotiating meaning in everyday conversations, rather than in teacher-directed repetitions of contrived dialogues. Students are taught to be communicators, not learners merely of vocabulary and grammar as in the audio-lingual method. In this approach to teaching a new language, the emphasis is on developing motivation to learn through establishing meaningful, purposeful things to do with the new language.Individuality in using the new language is encouraged, as well as cooperation with peers, which promotes a sense of personal competence in the use of the target language.

In their research on bilingualism, Hamers and Blanc (2000) studied how bilinguals carry out a large variety of cognitive tasks in the two languages. Bilingualism involves having a command of the linguistic system—the phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics— that constitute the essence of each language, but it also means being able to keep the languages separate cognitively when necessary, and strategies to search the memory store in one language in order to use the information in the other language.

The specific elements of the language system learned in a second language classroom vary by language. For example, the student learning Chinese or Farsi must learn an entirely new orthography, whereas students learning Spanish will only have minor differences in alphabets to contend with (Akamatsu, 2002). Some languages will have very different sentence structures compared to English; others will appear to be more familiar. However, familiarity with the language system alone is not enough to enable students to engage in successful communicative activities. Learners also acquire the strategies that assist them in bridging communication gaps that result from differences of language and culture. Examples of these strategies include circumlocution (saying things in different ways), using context clues, understanding, interpreting, producing gestures effectively, asking for and providing clarification, and negotiating meaning with others.

In language learning and teaching an important concept is comprehensible input. Students can only learn what they understand and in language teaching this means that the teacher must make content comprehensible. There is a theoretical debate about what exactly comprehensible input is and how it advances a learner's knowledge of a new language .However, at a practical level teachers understand that with early to intermediate language learners, teaching for comprehension includes providing many nonverbal clues such as pictures, objects, demonstrations, gestures, and intonation cues. As competency in the language develops, other strategies include using hands-on activities and cooperative or peer tutoring techniques. As learners' vocabulary and knowledge of the language expands, they are able to comprehend more information. Ultimately, mastery demands that learners understand what the teacher is saying in class or what a native speaker is saying in a real-life context as well as the appropriate conversational interactive exchanges in and out of the classroom. Sound strategies for teaching languages to students who differ by their level of proficiency have been incorporated into a compendium, “Standards for Foreign Language Learning in the 21st Century” (National Standards in Foreign Language Education Project, 1999). All of the professional language associations have endorsed the Standards and they are a critical element in teacher education programs today. In fact, education students must demonstrate mastery of these Standards in order to receive their teaching credential to teach a foreign language.

TIME INVOLVED IN LEARNING A SECOND LANGUAGE

How long it takes to learn a second language is an important pedagogical as well as psychological question because the answer depends in part on the learner's age, aptitude, personality, and motivation. If a person wants just enough language to be able to interact on a social level with native speakers, he or she will spend considerably less time learning the new language than a person who wants to be able to succeed academically in a classroom in the new language and compete with native speakers.

The learning of basic survival communication skills in a new language takes a few months to a year or two depending on the amount of language input the learner receives from native speakers of the target language, the accuracy of second language output demanded by the context, the motivation of the learner, and the amount of practice in listening and speaking the new language. This depends too on the age of the learner. The knowledge of the new language that a child would need to interact with native speakers on the playground is different from what would be required of a university student who intends to study in Spain or China and take academic coursework in Spanish or Mandarin with native students. The time needed to master a second language for interpersonal communication is considerably less than the time required to master second language oral and literacy (reading and writing) skills in order to do academic level courses with native speakers of the second language.

In sum, there is no one answer to the question of how much time is necessary to learn a second language. The answer depends on expectations of what language skills (oral, listening, reading, or writing) and level of proficiency are desirable in the student. If the goal is basic survival skills, the amount of time needed will be far less than if the aim is to develop a high level of communicative competency.

Bibliography:

1. Hakuta, K. (1986). Mirror of language: The debate on bilingualism. New York: Basic Books.

2.Hamers, J. F., & M. H. Blanc. (2000). Bilinguality & bilingualism (2nd ed.). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.

3.Krashen, S. D. (1981). Principles and practice in second language acquisition. English Language Teaching series. London: Prentice-Hall International (UK) Ltd.

4.McLaughlin, B. (1987). Theories of second language acquisition. London: Edward Arnold.

5.National Standards in Foreign Language Education Project. (1999). Standards for foreign language learning in the 21st century. Lawrence, KS: Allen Press.