Types of language games

Most people would say that English is not a “phonetic” language because it is not pronounced the way it is spelled. However, studies have shown that over 80% of English words do follow a regular spelling pattern. Unfortunately, approximately 500 of the most common English words e.g. said, are spelled irregularly. English spelling is not as irregular as it is often portrayed [1;62].

Many letters, particularly vowels, make more than one sound. Because of these discrepancies between the spelling and pronunciation of some English words, it is better, if possible, to introduce words to students orally before they see the written form. The teaching of common spelling patterns will help students pronounce unfamiliar words. The teaching of spelling and pronunciation should be closely linked to help students in mastering English pronunciation.

Traditionally, teachers approached the teaching of pronunciation by gradually introducing the 44 phonemes (sounds) that make up the English language. This is known as the bottom-up approach. Current methodology emphasizes using both the bottom-up and top-down approaches with the latter emphasizing examination of the entire piece of language including stress, intonation and sounds. Top-down and bottom up methods should be used in combination.

Consider the pronunciation target. How good do you want the students’ pronunciation to be? They should be able to comprehend what people are saying to them in English. When they speak, the listeners should be able to understand them. Don’t aim for perfection; it is an unrealistic expectation.

There are advantages and disadvantages in teaching the students phonetic symbols. Some teachers say that learning these symbols puts an additional burden on the students. However, many people think that these symbols are easily memorized (and the students only need to recognize the symbols rather than producing them). Once that has been accomplished, it makes the learning of pronunciation much easier [2;89]. Students can look up new words in a dictionary and not only find out their meaning, but also discover how to pronounce them. Teachers can use the symbols to show the link between letters and sounds.

The importance of stress, rhythm and intonation patterns can be very difficult for non-native speakers to understand. They convey the mood, emotion and meaning and subtle changes in patterns can result in a different meaning. There are plenty of exercises that practice stress and intonation patterns, but don’t spend too much time getting the students to reproduce them. Instead get them to listen to role models e.g. you, tapes and/or guest speakers. It is more important that the students hear the differences in stress, intonation and rhythm patterns rather than produce them.

Enjoyment of games is not restricted age. Some individuals, regardless of to age, may be less fond of games than others. But so much depends on the appropriateness of the games and the role of the player.

It is generally accepted that young learners and adults are very willing to play games. This partially depends on the learners' socio-cultural background [3;47].

Young teenagers tend to be more self-conscious and one must take into account their reticence when selecting games for them. Games which can be played in pairs or groups may be particularly useful in this case. It is clear to all observers of classroom practice that the teacher's own belief in the usefulness and appropriateness of a game affects the learner's response.

Teenage learners might be reluctant to play games. Many people are so anxious to learn English in order to pass examinations or to improve their employment prospects that they look on games as unnecessary. If you have such committed learners you must clearly respect their point of view and be able to justify the use of each game in terms of the density and meaningfulness of practice it provides.

It is important to note that most advanced and dedicated students can enjoy and value games if the content and language used are relevant to them.

When teaching on the phoneme level, we take noises and make them significant. When we work on pronunciation at the level of conversational dialogue, a new set of barriers appears.

Anxiety is a common enough symptom among ESL students. Fear of failure makes them stiff and nervous, and this is often readily apparent in their demeanor [4;5]. Repetitive verbal games such as Jazz Chants, handclap rhymes and other structured activities can relieve much of this pressure and allow the students to concentrate on the pronunciation and intonation Classroom rituals, like learning a short greeting to use at the beginning of each class will help boost self-confidence.

Learned helplessness is a less easily spotted hindrance. This refers to our psychological tendency to 'give up' after a few failed attempts, especially if there is negative feedback from the teacher or classmates. The solution is simple - keep it positive! Praise each advancement, no matter how small, tape the students’ progress so he/she can hear their improvement on a regular basis, and don't forget to award the slow learners as much recognition as the rapid ones!

Cultural identity is the last and perhaps the most important question to be dealt with. ESL and EFL students who are learning English merely for business often do not intend to assimilate, and will not wish to completely give up their accent as it sends a clear message about their roots and history.

The main objective here is not to attain some hypothetical standard of English pronunciation, but to merely ensure that all students can be readily understood. Any 'foreign' accent, in the end, will probably not be any more distracting than ones of native English speakers from varying parts of the world.

Games can be useful here as well, to break the ice and lessen tension about accents. Impersonations are a wonderful way to help students improve their pronunciation, and have a fun as well. Many famous personalities can be used as models and the students will have a terrific time guessing who they are [5;54]. Often the students will find that their pronunciation will markedly improve as they mimic the speech patterns of their favorite actors and celebrities. They can even imitate the teacher for an added note of hilarity!

All of these ideas can be expanded on and modified to fit the needs of your particular class. Teaching pronunciation to ESL students is very necessary, but it doesn't have to be nerve-wracking. Just work on it a little during each class, and see your students' abilities grow!

Classifying games into categories can be difficult, because categories often overlap. Hadfield (1999) explains two ways of classifying language games [6;64]. First, she divides language games into two types: linguistic games and communicative games. Linguistic games focus on accuracy, such as supplying the correct antonym. On the other hand, communicative games focus on successful exchange of information and ideas, such as two people identifying the differences between their two pictures which are similar to one another but not exactly alike. Correct language usage, though still important, is secondary to achieving the communicative goal.

The second taxonomy that Hadfield uses to classify language games has many more categories. As with the classification of games as linguistic games or communicative games, some games will contain elements of more than one type.

1. Sorting, ordering, or arranging games. For example, students have a set of cards with different products on them, and they sort the cards into products found at a grocery store and products found at a department store.

2. Information gap games. In such games, one or more people have information that other people need to complete a task. For instance, one person might have a drawing and their partner needs to create a similar drawing by listening to the information given by the person with the drawing. Information gap games can involve a one-way information gap, such as the drawing game just described, or a two-way information gap, in which each person has unique information, such as in a Spot-the-Difference task, where each person has a slightly different picture, and the task is to identify the differences.

3. Guessing games. These are a variation on information gap games. One of the best known examples of a guessing game is 20 Questions, in which one person thinks of a famous person, place, or thing. The other participants can ask 20 Yes/No questions to find clues in order to guess who or what the person is thinking of.

4. Search games. These games are yet another variant on two-way information gap games, with everyone giving and seeking information. Find Someone Who is a well-known example. Students are given a grid. The task is to fill in all the cells in the grid with the name of a classmate who fits that cell, e.g., someone who is a vegetarian. Students circulate, asking and answering questions to complete their own grid and help classmates complete theirs.

5. Matching games. As the name implies, participants need to find a match for a word, picture, or card. For example, students place 30 word cards, composed of 15 pairs, face down in random order. Each person turns over two cards at a time, with the goal of turning over a matching pair, by using their memory. This is also known as the Pelmanism principle, after Christopher Louis Pelman, a British psychologist of the first half of the 20^th century [7;8].

6. Labeling games. These are a form of matching, in that participants match labels and pictures.

7. Exchanging games. In these games, students barter cards, other objects, or ideas. Similar are exchanging and collecting games. Many card games fall into this category, such as the children’s card game

8. Board games. Scrabble is one of the most popular board games that specifically highlights language.

9. Role play games. The terms role play, drama, and simulation are sometimes used interchangeably but can be differentiated (Kodotchigova, 2002) [8;9]. Role play can involve students playing roles that they do not play in real life, such as dentist, while simulations can involve students performing roles that they already play in real life or might be likely to play, such as customer at a restaurant. Dramas are normally scripted performances, whereas in role plays and simulations, students come up with their own words, although preparation is often useful.

In teaching pronunciation there are at least two methodological problems the teacher faces:

1) to determine the cases where conscious manipulation of the speech organs is required, and the cases where simple imitation can or must be used;

2) to decide on types of exercises and the techniques of using them.

The teacher instructs his pupils to pronounce sounds, words, word combinations, phrases and sentences in the English language. Pupils must become conscious of the differences between English sounds and those of the native language. This is possible provided the foreign sound is contrasted with the native phoneme which is substituted for it, e. g.: E. [t] — R. [T]; E. [n] — R. [H]; E. [h] — R. [X].

Each sound is also contrasted with the foreign phonemes which come close to it and with which it is often confused. The contrast is brought out through such minimal pairs . as: it — eat; spot — sport; wide — white, cut — cart, full — foot, boat — bought. The experience of the sound contrast is reinforced audio-visually:

1. By showing the objects which the contrasting words represent For example, ship — sheep. The teacher makes quick simple drawings of a ship and a sheep on the blackboard or shows pictures of these objects.

2. By showing actions. For example, He is riding. — He is writing. Situational pictures may be helpful if the teacher cannot make a sketch on the blackboard.

3. By using sound symbols [ae] — [e]; .Phonetic symbols do not teach the foreign sounds. They emphasize the difference in sounds and in this respect they are a valuable help. To teach pupils how to pronounce a new language correctly in a conscious way means to ensure that the pupil learns to put his organs of speech into definite positions required for the production of the speech sounds of this language.

A person learning a foreign language unconsciously continues to use his muscles in the old ways and substitutes the phonemes and the intonation of his native tongue, e. g., he pronounces zis instead of this, or veal instead of wheel; Do 'you 'speak 'English? instead of 'Do you 'speak ,Eriglish? He does not even notice his mistake.

In learning pronunciation great use should also be made of imitation [9;85]. Pupils learn to pronounce a new language by imitating the pronunciation of the teacher. Since young people's ability to imitate is rather good it should be used in teaching pronunciation as well. Indeed, there are sounds in the English language which are difficult to explain, for example, vowels. The teacher is often at a loss how to show his pupils the pronunciation of this or that vowel, because he cannot show them the position of the organs of speech while producing the sound.

The description of a vowel requires the use of such words as "the back (the front) of the tongue", "the soft (hard) palate" and others which, in their turn, present a lot of trouble to pupils to understand. It is easier for them to pronounce a sound, a word, or a sentence in imitation of the teacher than to assimilate "what is what" in the mouth and apply the "knowledge" to producing sounds or sound sequences.

Therefore pupils merely imitate the teacher. It should be said that the correct pronunciation of some vowels often depends on the correct pronunciation of consonants. For example, if a pupil pronounces did as Russian дид it mеans he mispronounces [d], and not [I] because one cannot pronounce дид with the correct position of the tongue for producing the English [d].

As to intonation it should be taught mainly through imitation, though some explanations and gestures in particular are helpful [10;24]. For example, the teacher can show the rise of the voice by moving his hand up and the fall by moving it down. He can also use the following symbols: ' for stress, A for pause, for falling tone, ' for rising tone, and teach pupils how to use them while listening to a text and reading it. Consequently, teaching pronunciation in school must be carried out through conscious approach to the problem and imitation of the teacher and speakers when tape-recordings and records are used. Neither the first nor the second should be underestimated.

Games for ear training

• The same or different?

– Prepare a list of minimal pairs, e.g. hit /heat bit/beat sit/seat grin/green, tin/teen.

– Read out one pair and get students to say which word is each, writing them on board.

– Read one of the words twice. ‘Are they the same or different?’ (The same.)

– Read the contrasting words. ‘Are they the same or different?’ (Different.)

– Continue with all the pairs, mixing same and different. Students write S or D in their notebooks.

– Pairs can confer and then read the list of pairs again for checking.

Alternatively, make it into a team challenge game. Doing this with numbers from the beginning is great fun, e.g. ‘13 or 30? 14 or 40?’ and numbers which cause confusion, such as 6 and 7 in combinations 66 or 67.

• Minimal pair pictures. With younger learners the minimal pair listening can become a drawing exercise. Either circle the drawing if you hear the word, e.g. house or mouse or ask a class to draw the word they hear and compare drawings to check.

• Odd man out. Read a list of four words, all except one containing the same consonant cluster or vowel. ‘Was it 1, 2, 3, or 4?’ For example, church; shoe; chess; cheese.

• How many times? Choose a sound to focus on and after initial repetition read sentences or a short text containing the sound once, twice or even three times. Teams must say if they have heard it more than once or just once. Pick some sentences where the sound is not there at all!

Repetition of phrases and words is a necessary part of language learning. Teenagers are the most reticent group of learners, since they are more concerned with making fools of themselves in front of their peers. Making repetition into a fun activity, and not a chore, can be done in a variety of ways.

• Play with volume. Ask learners to say something in a louder voice increasing the volume (be wary of the classes next door) or ask students to speak in a whisper, very quietly.

• Experiment with tone. Say something in a curious, surprised, angry, bored or frightened tone. This is great for raising awareness of intonation and its importance. Even beginners’ classes enjoy experimenting with different ways of asking Yes? or saying Thank you. This is also useful for higher level students preparing for reading aloud in exams.

• Experiment with speed. ‘How fast can you say it?’, building up speed like a train.

• Adding to a list (see list games for practicing unstressed syllables below) and making it into a game-like activity: ‘We went to the park and we played tennis, played football, played cards on the grass, played ...’

• Playing with numbers. Counting in evens, odds, tens, backwards or saying times tables. (If you have younger learners and beginners use maths chants and times tables to music – there are lots of CDs available in the UK.) Look at alphabet games used in UK primary schools for more inspiration.

• Playing with rhyme. Play rhyme games, where one student says a word and the next adds one that rhymes, e.g. day ... play ... say ... pay ... grey

• Categorize words. Mix up groups of words with contrasting vowels or consonants which cause difficulty with different stress patterns. Students in pairs divide the words into two or three categories and then listen to check. Repeat the words with the class. Students think of more words to fit each category.

Jazz chants have been very successfully used in ELT [11;11]. Songs based on repetition of items or a distinctive refrain can work well from beginners upwards, such as traditional songs like ‘Ten green bottles’, ‘There was an old woman who swallowed a fly’ or pop songs which appeal to the age range. The stress system: weak forms and the schwa /ə/. The most important sound in the English language is the schwa /ə/. Note its presence in the following basic exchanges: ‘Həve you got thə time?’ ‘Yes, it’s nine ə‘clock.’ This neutral vowel is used in unstressed syllables of words and weak forms in a sentence. It should be a priority to help students become aware of this throughout their course, from beginners up to advanced level. This weak vowel-sound /ə/ can replace every vowel sound and so has its own symbol. If you wish to teach any symbols this one should be the main one. Word stress in English is variable: any syllable can carry the main stress whereas in other languages stress may fall on the last syllable, so learners are surprised. Getting the stress on the wrong syllable can make the word incomprehensible to native English speakers [12;6]. This has more impact on intelligibility than mispronounced sounds. In sentences the stress of words shifts according to meaning. (Note the stress shifts. On the unstressed word the vowel sound becomes a schwa.)

Who are you waiting for? Where are you from?

I’m waiting fə my sister. I’m frəm Spain.

Work on recognising weak forms helps students to hear unstressed elements in speech and greatly improves listening comprehension. From beginner level upwards, five-minute activities to integrate with all lessons:

• Counting syllables (on fingers) through listening, not looking at words.

• Dividing a sentence into groups of syllables through listening.

• Practising with visuals of two-syllable words with stress on the first syllable, e.g. Germən, and sets like: mother, father, sister, brother; doctor, teacher, driver, baker; better, faster, cheaper.

• Listening and practice with sentences (long and short) with articles a and an, as well as and. Lists, shopping, ordering in a cafй, telling the time. Example: The weak vowel in ten-ə-clock, ten-tə-ten. Isolate sentence groups for quick controlled practice before speaking tasks like role plays. Example: Note the unstressed article and linking in this group. ə cupəv coffee; ə glassəv milk; ə pieceəv cake; ə sliceəv tart. Example: Play a list game chorally round the class. The first student starts: ‘I’d like a cup of coffee please.’ The next student adds: ‘I’d like a cup of coffee and a sandwich please.’ The next student adds: ‘I’d like a cup of coffee, a sandwich and a glass of water please.’ Play the game in the same way with other situations: ‘What did John take on holiday to the Sahara?’ or ‘What did Peter give his ten girlfriends on Valentine’s Day?’

• Look at syllables and stress in a wide variety of words and sentences as well as short paragraphs.

• Use familiar textbook dialogues. Ask students to highlight the words which they think are the most important parts of communication. Listen and check how much these words are stressed. This sentence focus is beneficial for listening skills as students identify the main message.

• Encourage students to anticipate the pronunciation of new words encountered in reading and mark the stress of new words when you write them on the board. If dictionaries are used, draw attention to stress markings in students’ dictionaries.

• Use songs. Sentence stress and the schwa /ə/ are usually very clear in songs. Singers greatly exaggerate stressed syllables and the contrast is more marked. Use individual singers with strong, clear voices. Integrate this aspect with your other exploitation tasks for songs.

• Use newspaper headlines. Headlines are created by reducing the message of a sentence to the key words, which are those which are stressed. Contrasting a headline with its complete message highlights the stress patterns of English.

When listening to English at normal speed you will note that we move smoothly from one word to the next, so that there aren’t pauses between words [13;9]. This can be seen in the most basic expressions: Thanks a lot. (Thanks ə sounds like a single, two-syllable word), and the most elementary of sentences: I’m a student (I’mə ...). Pausing after every word sounds artificial. Indicate linkage in board summaries for all classes.

Treat groups of words and phrases as they come up in a course:

• could have = could əv; must have = must əv; might have = might əv; two weeks ago = two weeks əgo; three years ago = three years əgo

• the linking /r/ in: here and there; better and better; closer and closer; mother and father.

Tasks for awareness of linking (all levels)

• Focus on a sentence or question type and give six to eight examples. Students in pairs decide which words the speaker might link and then listen to check. E.g. ‘Will you be coming tomorrow? I’ll see if I can get there by six. What will you do if she doesn’t ring? I’ll go by myself.’

• Take a very short passage, one paragraph, which is easy for students to understand. Ask students to listen and mark any points where words are linked. Go through with the class, listen again, and ask for repetition. Pairs then practice reading aloud to each other. Do the same with short dialogues.

References

1. Renworthy J. Teaching English Pronunciation. -Longman.

2. Baker A. Tree or Three? An Elementary pronunciation course. - CUP, 1991.

3. Baker A. Ship or Sheep? An Intermediate pronunciation course. - CUP, 1991

4. Laroy C. Pronunciation. - OUP, 2006.

5. Celce-Murcia, M. Brinton D., Goodwin J. Teaching Pronunciation. - CUP, 2006.

6. Hadfield J. Intermediate vocabulary games. Harlow, Essex: Longman. 1999

7. Christopher Louis Pelman. Memory Training. Series of booklets. 1905 – P.12

8. Kodotchigova M. A. Role play in teaching culture: Six quick steps for classroom implementation. Internet TESL Journal, 8(7). Retrieved February 13, 2006.

9. Залевская A.A. Введение в психолингвистику: Учебник. 2-е изд. испр. и доп. — М.: Российск. гос. гуманит. ун-т, 2007. — 560 с.

10. Бужинский В.В. Работа над английским произношением на начальной ступени коммуникативного обучения иноязычному говорению.// ИЯШ.-1991.-№ 4. - С. 43-47.

11. Кулькевич С.В. «Современный урок» - Новосибирск , 1999, 227с.

12. Гальскова Н.Д. Современная методика обучения иностранным языкам. М., 2003. 193с.

13. Рахманов И.В. Основные направления в методике преподавания иностранных языков в 19-20вв.-М., Педагогика – 2001, 354с.