Sh.K.
Òuleubayeva, N. S. Bekezhan
Buketov Karaganda State University, Karaganda
The quantum theory in human
knowledge
The quantum theory has played the major role in
formation and a statement in the second half of the 20th century of the
"post-classical" science which has succeeded "classical"
science of the 19th century. The quantum mechanics is created by efforts of the
whole group of physicists, including such largest physicists and thinkers of
the 20th century as A. Einstein and N. Bohr. All creators of the quantum theory
have been marked out by Nobel Prizes. Quantum mechanics (wave mechanics) - the
theory which establishes a way of the description and laws of the movement of micro
particles (elementary particles, atoms, molecules, atomic kernels) and their
systems and also communication of the sizes characterizing particles and
systems with the physical quantities which are directly measured on experience.
The quantum mechanics describes laws of the movement of micro particles.
However as properties of macroscopic bodies are defined by the movement and
interaction of particles of which they consist so far as the quantum mechanics
is applied to an explanation of many macroscopic phenomena. For example, the
quantum mechanics has allowed to understand many properties of solid bodies, to
consistently explain such phenomena as ferromagnetic, super fluidity,
superconductivity, to understand the nature of such astrophysical objects as
white dwarfs, neutron stars, to find out the mechanism of course of
thermonuclear reactions in the Sun and stars.
For creation of a modern picture of the world an important event was the
fact that in 1922 the American physicist Compton has opened effect in which for
the first time in all completeness corpuscular properties of electromagnetic
radiation were shown (in particular, light). It has experimentally been shown
that light dispersion by free electrons happens under laws elastic collision of
two particles. Compton effect has revealed corpuscular properties of light. It
has been experimentally proved that along with the known wave properties (which
are shown, for example, in diffraction) light has also corpuscular properties:
it consists kind of of particles. In it light dualism, his corpuscular and wave
nature is shown. There was a formal logical contradiction: for an explanation
of one phenomena it was necessary to consider that light has the wave nature,
for an explanation of others - corpuscular. Permission of this contradiction
has also led to creation of physical fundamentals of quantum mechanics. In 1913
Bohr has applied the idea of quanta to planetary model of atom. This model on
the basis of classical representations led to a paradox - the radius of an
orbit of an electron had to decrease constantly because of radiation and the
electron had to fall to a kernel. For an explanation of stability of atoms Bohr
has assumed that the electron lets out light waves not constantly, and only
upon transition from one orbit meeting quantization conditions to another light
quantum is born. Bourne has formulated probabilistic interpretation of the
description of the movement in the quantum theory in 1926, in 1927 Heisenberg
has published the "principle of uncertainty". Planck, Einstein,
de-Broil, Schrodinger couldn't make conclusions of the quantum theory fully. In
formulation and upholding of these ideas the main role was played by Niels
Bohr. The ideas of the quantum theory in the second half of the 20th century
not only were approved, but were a basis of new technologies and technological
inventions. Final formation of quantum mechanics as consecutive theory is
connected with Heisenberg's work of 1927 in which the principle claiming that
any physical system can't be in states in which coordinates of her center of
inertia and an impulse at the same time accept quite certain, exact values has
been formulated. This principle has received the name "ratio of uncertainty".
The ratio of uncertainty establishes that concepts of coordinate and an impulse
of classical sense can't be applied to microscopic objects. No experiment can
lead to at the same time exact measurement of the uncertainty of dynamic variables
entering a ratio. At the same time uncertainty in measurements is connected not
with imperfection of the measuring equipment, and with objective properties of
a microcosm.
In 1929 The Nobel Prize has been awarded to the French
physicist Louis de-Broil "for opening of the wave nature of an
electron". After Einstein has assumed that waves of light can behave as
particles, de-Broil has entered idea that particles can behave as waves. He
postulated a certain ratio between an impulse of the particle and wavelength
compared with her movement. According to de-Broil, in the resolved electron
orbits in "Bohr's atom" the integer of these waves keeps within. The
electronic waves entered into physics by de-Broil have received experimental
confirmation in J. Devisson and J. Thomson's experiences which have established
diffraction of electrons on crystals – the Nobel Prize on physics for 1937.
After ingenious guesses and Planck, Einstein, Bohr, de-Broil's theoretical
constructions, the German physicist Verner Heisenberg and the Austrian
physicist Ervin Schrödinger have formulated a mathematical apparatus of
the quantum theory, the first – in "a matrix form", and the second in
the form of "wave mechanics", and Schrödinger has proved
equivalence of two mathematical forms of the theory. In 1932 Heisenberg has got
the Nobel Prize "for creation of quantum mechanics". In the
following, 1933. The Nobel Prize on physics was got by Schrödinger and the
English physicist Paul Dirac "for opening of new productive forms of the
atomic theory". Dirac has improved a mathematical apparatus of the quantum
theory, having included ("Dirac's equation"). Dirac's equation
"has legalized" backs of an electron and has predicted him magnetic
properties. Dirac has predicted electron "antiparticle" – a positron.
Completion of creation of the device of quantum mechanics has generated heated
debates concerning interpretation of this theory as she significantly differs
from classical theories. The important difference consists that in classical
theories properties of objects out of their relation to those devices by means
of which these properties while in quantum mechanics accounting of conditions
of observation is integral from the most theoretical statement of a problem are
found are described (at the same time in various macroscopic situations of
microeffect find various, sometimes opposite properties, for example, of a
particle or waves). Other essential difference of quantum mechanics from
classical, caused heated debates, is her essentially probabilistic character.
The mood characteristic of classical science is reflected in Laplace's
statement that if there was a mind informed at present on all forces of nature
in points of application of these forces, then "there is no nothing left
that for him would be doubtful, and the future as well as the past, would
appear before his look". It is important to emphasize that use of
probabilistic and statistical methods in science doesn't contradict the concept
of Laplace determinism. At the empirical level objects are given in unity of
essential and insignificant, casual properties therefore use of probabilistic
representations is quite proved. At the theoretical level use of probabilities
assumed unambiguous determinancy of those individual phenomena which in total give
statistical law. From positions of Laplace determinism, use of probabilistic
representations in science is quite justified, but the informative status of
dynamic and statistical theories is significantly various. Statistical theories
from these positions are not original theories; they can be practically very
useful, but in the informative plan they are defective, they give only the
first approach to the truth, and behind each statistical theory there has to be
a theory which is unambiguously describing reality. Plunging into physics,
Planck didn't assume that, having become the experimenter, he will present to
the world an exit to the new level of consciousness through withdrawal pains of
the old principles. A. Einstein "has doubled" a concept of light. His
ingenious researches originated in the children's aspirations to explain the
nature. Niels Bohr, having created the model of atom, I have become famous not
only as the physicist with brilliant scientific reputation, but also as the
person of a rare independent thought. Louis de-Broil, the one who has
fascinated Einstein has come to physics through literature and history thanks
to works of the brother Maurice. When there was a task to describe duality of
an electron mathematically, forward all the new generation of physicists which
isn't burdened with freight of traditions - Heisenberg, Paulie and Dirac was
pushed. Bohr as the wise grandfather, has brought physicists out of darkness of
one-sided representations to light of the principle of complementarity. But at
the same time with formation of new science the drama of the ideas and
scientists was played: authors of primary provisions Planck, Einstein and
de-Broil didn't accept an unusual physical picture of the world.
Literature
1. David Baume, "The quantum
theory", M, GIFML.1961
2. Niels Bohr, "Atomic
physics and human knowledge", M, Prod. foreign literature
3.Encyclopedia "Nobel
Prize laureates", Volumes 1 and 2, Progress