Zhuravlyova Daria
Institute
of Sociology, Psychology and Social Communications
Pet’ko Lyudmila
Ph.D., Associate Professor,
Dragomanov
National Pedagogical University (Ukraine,
Kyiv)
Herbert Spencer
British philosopher and sociologist, Herbert Spencer was a major figure
in the intellectual life of the Victorian era [5]. He was one of the principal
proponents of evolutionary theory in the mid nineteenth century, and his
reputation at the time rivaled that of Charles Darwin. Spencer’s method is,
broadly speaking, scientific and empirical, and it was influenced significantly
by the positivism of Auguste Comte. Because of the empirical character of
scientific knowledge and because of his conviction that that which is known –
biological life – is in a process of evolution, Spencer held that knowledge is
subject to change [10; 7].
H.Spencer is the best known for:
1) Developing and applying evolutionary theory to philosophy,
psychology and the study of society; 2) Helping to develop the functionalist
perspective, one of the major theoretical frameworks in sociology; 3) His
political thoughts, primarily his defense of natural rights and for criticisms
of utilitarian positivism [1; 9].
Herbert Spencer was born in Derby, England on 27 April 1820. After the
lengthy illness he died in Brighton, England on December 8, 1903 (aged 83).
He was the eldest
of nine children, but the only one to survive infancy. Spencer's father was a
school teacher, however he was very unconventional and Herbert therefore
received a largely informal and undisciplined education. Spencer had many
eclectic interests and eventually trained as a civil engineer for railways. In
his early 20s, however, he turned to journalism and political writing [1; 2].
From 1848 to
1853, Spencer worked as a writer and subeditor for The Economist
financial weekly. and, as a result, came into contact with a number of
political controversialists such as George Henry Lewes, Thomas Carlyle, Lewes’
future lover George Eliot (Mary Ann Evans [1819–1880].
In 1851 Spencer
wrote his first book, Social Statics: The Conditions Essential to Human
Happiness. 'Social statics' is a term that Spencer borrowed from August Comte, which deals with the conditions of social
order. In Social Statics, Spencer predicted that humanity would
eventually become completely adapted to the requirements of living in society
with the consequential withering away of the state. In this work, Spencer
presents an account of the development of human freedom and a defense of
individual liberties, based on a (Lamarckian-style) evolutionary theory [1;
10].
Given the
variations in temperament and character among individuals, Spencer recognized
that there were differences in what happiness specifically consists in Social
Statics (1851). In general, however, ‘happiness’ is the surplus of
pleasure over pain, and ‘the good’ is what contributes to the life and
development of the organism, or – what is much the same – what provides this
surplus of pleasure over pain. Happiness, therefore, reflects the complete
adaptation of an individual organism to its environment – or, in other words,
‘happiness’ is that which an individual human being naturally seeks [10].
In
1855, Spencer published his second book, The Principles of Psychology,
which was much less successful than his first book. It was about this time that
Spencer also began experiencing serious mental health problems, which would
affect him for the remainder of his life. Because of this, he sought privacy
and rarely went out in public. He was also limited in terms of how much work he
could do and was only able to write for a few hours each day. He thus embarked
on a lengthy project, which was the nine-volume A System of Synthetic
Philosophy, which he wrote between 1862 and 1893. In it, he provided a
systematic account of his views in biology, sociology, ethics and politics and
presented his idea that societies are organisms that progress through a process
of evolution similar to that experienced by living species, a concept known to
as social Darwinism [1].
Society is (by
definition, for Spencer) an aggregate of individuals, and change in society
could take place only once the individual members of that society had changed
and developed [8, 366–367]. Individuals are, therefore, ‘primary,’ individual
development was ‘egoistic,’ and associations with others largely instrumental
and contractual [10].
In
1883 Spencer was elected a corresponding member of philosophical section of the
French academy of moral and political sciences. His work was also particularly
influential in the United States, where his book, The Study of Sociology,
was at the center of a controversy (1879–1880) at Yale University between a
professor, William Graham Sumner, and the University’s president, Noah Porter.
Spencer’s influence extended into the upper echelons of American society and it
has been claimed that, in 1896, “three justices of the Supreme Court were
avowed ‘Spencerians’” [10].
Conceptual art
and historical imagery illustrate a discussion of the "tragedy of
modernity" using the writings of Herbert Spencer. The video is recounted
Spencer's biography, his central social theory, and situates his work in the
19th century assumption of modernity as progress by Dr Dan Krier [6].
Spencer’s idea of
problems of coordination and control continue to have importance for
contemporary theory, especially with theories that try to explain complex,
modern global systems [3, 23].
In 1902, shortly
before his death, Spencer was nominated for the Nobel Prize for Literature. He
continued writing all his life, in later years often by dictation, until he
succumbed to poor health at the age of 83. His ashes are interred in the
eastern side of London's Highgate Cemetery facing Karl Marx’s grave. At
Spencer's funeral the Indian nationalist leader Shyamji Krishnavarma announced
a donation of £1,000 to establish a lectureship at Oxford University in
tribute to Spencer and his work [4].
Bibliography
1. Crossman Ashley. Herbert Spencer [Web site]. – Access mode:
http://sociology.about.com/od/Profiles/p/Herbert-Spencer.htm
2. Durant Will. Herbert Spencer's Fascinating Life and Philosophy (Video) [Web site]. – Access mode: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Hqeh8NkNERY
3. Explorations in Classical
Sociological Theory: Seeing the Social World / red. Kenneth
Allan. – Pine Forge Press, 2010. – 451 p. [Web site]. – Access mode: http://books.google.com.ua/books?id=w64nblF532cC&sitesec=buy&hl=ru&source=gbs_vpt_read
4. Herbert Spencer [Web site]. – Access mode:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbert_Spencer
5. Herbert Spencer "the Greatest Individual of the
19th Century" (Video) [Web site]. – Access mode: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Cxfbq4evdTY&list=PLV6msb59g6_fiF_PUZAri4CCxlgvGchL9
6. Krier Dan. Sociological Theory: Herbert Spencer
and the Tragedy of Modernity. Part 1. (Video)
[Web site]. – Access
mode: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o8fmPShiwME
7. Peterson Deb. Herbert
Spencer. Philosopher. Herbert Spencer Quotations on Education [Web
site]. – Access mode: http://adulted.about.com/od/intro/a/spencerquotations.htm
8. Spencer H. The Study of
Sociology. – New York : D. Appleton, 1874, [c1873]
9. Spencer H. The Principles of Sociology. – 3
vols. London : Williams and Norgate, 1882–1898. [A System of Synthetic
Philosophy, v. 6–8] CONTENTS: Vol. 1: pt. 1. The data of sociology. pt. 2.
The inductions of sociology. pt. 3. The domestic relations; Vol. 2: pt. 4.
Ceremonial institutions. pt. 5. Political institutions; v. 3: pt. 6.
Ecclesiastical institutions. pt. 7. Professional institutions. pt. 8.
Industrial institutions.]
10. Sweet William. Herbert
Spencer (1820–1903) / Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy [Web site]. – Access mode:
http://www.iep.utm.edu/spencer/