Ph.d. in history. Ramazanly Hasanaga Khanhasan
Academy of Sciences of the Azerbaijan Republic
Institute of Archaeology and Ethnography.
Historical information and
prerequisites for development of faience handicrafts in North Azerbaijan
Analyzing regularities of
development of technico-technological
factors traces back to information on
production of faience earthenware in the northern towns of Azerbaijan.
In this information there are
reflections of chronological frames,
development of construction engineering,
metallurgic and glass productions, alliance of technical and technological
methods and historical, geographical and social conditions, factors on level
of faience earthenware production
handicrafts.
In antique sources [1],
written monuments of Oriental peoples there are extremely inconsistent but very
important materials on deposit a of clay and exploitation of mineral resources.
Sources of the late early
medieval period [3] inform that potters
manufactured different precious royal vessels of above-stated clays and
minerals (4-23, 2-70, 3-152, 40157). These handicrafts wares were decorated
with gold, ailver and other precious stones, and these facts were corroborated
not only by geological data but also by written sources information.
How can we interpret
"The History of Agvans", the words "different royal
vessels", etc.? Could an historical imply faience earthenware under
"different royal vessels"? Are the opinions of T.M.Mamedov [5],
S.B.Ashurbeyli [6] and F.J.Mamedova [7] about the beginning of faience earthenware production in North
Azerbaijan in VII-VIII century
indisputable?
"Ascending stage of
feudalism" with its possibilities, conditions and self generating reasons [8-7] is considered to be "a
stage of invasions in breadth and depth ideology and technology". At this
period there was a rapid growth of productive forces, mining and different
handicrafts in the countries of the Middle East. That is why historians,
missionaries and naturalists tried to establish stage by stage connections of caliphate with the countries of Adjam. Among them were Arabian and
Persian scholars - travelers Kabir ibn Hayyan (9-427, 20-214), Abu Iskhak
Ibragim ibn Muhammad a al-Farisi al-Istahri [10], Abu-l Kasem ibn Haukal Shams
ad-Din Abu Bark al-Mukaddasi [11]. Besides limited information on handicrafts
and productive forces, there are in the sources a lot of quite new facts,
methods of output, preparation, purification, dissolution, filtration,
crystallization, evaporation, distillation of metals and different
clays of mineral origin.
Scholor-chemist Abu Bakr
Muhammad Ibn Zakariyya ar-Razi (12, 27-36) rote about 19 works of great
interest for study of handicraft chemistry and ceramic productions. The most
important of them are "Code of twelve treatises", "Books of
secrets" and "Book of mystery of mysteries" [13]. In his works
ar-Razi divides chemical substances into 4 categories: a) vegetable; b)
organic; c) derivative; d) mineral. Derivative and mineral substances are more frequently
used in faience production. In
ar-Razi's opinion, mineral substances are numerous and include 6 sections: 1. alcohols,
2. bodies, 3. stohes, 4. vitriol’s, 5. borax, 6. salts. It should be noted that
a body of faience earthenware consists of the yeast of these six components:
namely, combination of these components was the basis of faience production development in North Azerbaijan too.
Nomenclature of chemical
substances and methods of theirtransformations worked out by Greek and Arabian
chemists still in the VII-XIV centuries was used by some peoples of the Orient,
including North Azerbaijan (14-452). "Book of mystery of mysteries"
technically and reproductionally relates to the section of statement works,
special works-manuscripts; formally it relates to originals; as official or
personal document it enters a list of scientific-technical and popular
literature. From the point of view of historiography this "Book"
relates to special summary. Ar-Razi expounds no the whole history and practice
of metal and mineral clays technology
of his time. The fifth chapter tells about calcinations of lead and tin
(carried out uorigth near hearth), 3 methods of calcinations of glass and salt
are described. The sixth chapter narrates about dissolution and softening of
solid and soft bodien, hare ar-Razi presents a recipe of "clay of
wisdom" or so called "white clay" (1.8a-9b;
162b, 1.35ab) for production of various crucibles for metals, glasses, etc. A
"faience" word is found in 1.158a of the given work. In
their works Abu-r Reyhan Biruni [15] and Abu Ali al-Huseyn ibn Abdallah ibn
Sina [16] elucidate questions of dissoluble alums and clays suitable for
production of various (faience) colored glazed earthenware in the IX-XI
centuries.
It is known that in all
heroic eposes courage and patriotism are in the centre of narration.
"Kitabi Dede Korkud", heroic Oghus epos, is notable for its ambivalence.
Ruled by the idea that "the world for medieval man is two-dimensional and dual" the epos composers served
their time and their own people. Let us consider one line of the text: a stone crumbled like a meal [18-16].
Here we see, firstly, strength of people and some of his heroes; secondly, from
the point of view of technology, composition and structure of complex ceramic
(faience) earthenware are clearly and skillfully described here.
River quartz sands are the
best in the technology of faience earthenware production, during faience baking
they are most deformed. Being pure and transparent these sands consist mainly
of homogeneous particles and have a high degree of regeneration [20-37].
During baking wares of vein sads are
lesser deformed. In our opinion, Oghuzes, in complex technological productions, used pure vein sads and, as it
is said in the text, they "turned a stone
into clay" [21-57].
Representatives of
practical chemistry of handicraft character of Azerbaijan - Abu-l Fazl Hubaysh
ibn Ibragim Tiflisi [22] (XII c.) and Masir ad-Din Tusi Abu Jafar Ibn Muhammad
ibn Hasan Abu bakr [23] - elucidate key questions associated with monuments of
people's everyday chemistry, applied technology and handicrafts. They inform us
about enamel production, recipes of were production from the so called
"clay of wisdom". Their works deal with questions associated with
theory and practice of medieval chemical-technological
production arts [24–79].
"Description of
handicrafts" [25] by Hubaysh Tiflisi is the earliest example of handicraft
chemistry in Azerbaijan, it is a treatise elucidating questions of technics
and technology of ceramic (faience)
handicrafts. The fifth chapter of the
treatise is devoted to the recipes of coloring of lustres. Unfortunately, in
the chapters IV and V Ibragim Tiflisi dives no description of technological
process of glaze production.
"Jaqahir-name"
by Nasir ad-Din Tusi [26-31] is one of
the most important medival reatises on
minerology of Azerbaikan of great
historical significance. Deacribing 34 kinde of minerals, the author briefly
characterizes phisico-mechanical and chemical properties of each mineral used
in everyday life. For that purpose he uses detailed acale of colors, brilliancy, solidity,
transparency, specific weight, fire
testing, etc.
Closely connected with the
West and the East in the XII-XIV centuries, Khagani Shirvant in his works [27], Nizami Gyndjevi in his
"Hamse" and Mas'ud ibn Namdar [29] gave descriptions of various
metallic oxides, recipes, building materials and clay (faience) ware productions.
"Collection of
annals" by Faslallah Abu-l Hayr Rashid ad-Din Hamadani (XIII-XIV c.)
called at-Tabib [30-62] is one the most significant written monuments in
Azerbaijan. The book includes stories about everyday social-economic life of
that period. The second part of the "annals" is devoted to Khulagu
Khan-at the end of his reign, sending Ataga Khan to Khorasan, granting regions
to amirs and valis, causes of his
disease and death. Rashid ad-Din (1/91) metions "clay of wiadom" of
which faience ware were made. "Collection
on annals" is considered to be a source of common character, the
author tells about the development of handocraft workshops and the activity of
professional masters who manufactured coppers. In the Middles Ages large vessels, or so called "coppers"
were manufactured usually of clay. Rashid ad-Din adds that such coppers were
made of "clay of wisdom"
Manufacturing ceramic
wares (including faience) by medieval masters depended upon various factors,
main of which were different types, existence of abundant natural resources and
a level of economic and cultural development of the given territory population. In the light of stated
one may suppose that to produce local highly artistic polychrome faience a minimum of
objective and subjective facture of specific features (general, internal and ezternal) recurred, namely:
1.Rich koalin-fireprof and bentonite clays.
2. Non-clayed materials of mineral and organic origin possessing stickness and certain plastic properties.
3. Presence of local fuel.
4. Technical and technological methods of manufacturing and baking.
5. Geographic location and state of cities.
6. Trade and cultural ties with countries-producers of faience wares.
In the VII-VIX centuries
pottery in Azerbaijan achieved its highest level of development favored by raw
materials presence of highly qualitative, casilly melt, primary and secondary
kaolin-fireproof clays of the Caucasuc Minor [31]. It may be used about deposits of the Gyandja-tchay and
Koshgartchay rivers [32], Zaglick, Kysyladjin, Getashen, Gotul, Karamurand,
Shahbuz, Bala-Kulfin, Tohardahly places [33] and bentonits of North-Eastern
mountainouse regions of the Caucanus Minor [34], Shemakha-Kobustan and Apsheron
mines [35-37].
Important step ahead towards
the stage of intensive development of complex ceramic handicrafts was made in
Azerbaijan after the appenarance of decorated ceramics. It appeared to be
one of the major subjective factors of
production of the local glazed, glass and artistic faience wares. Accumulation
of numerous wares of Mediterranean
masters: glass beads, various ornaments
of Egyptian faience created real conditions for enririching
technological and physico-thermic processes of production, arising anghobyring
traditions and so on. Production of silicate
beads, hangers, little amulets discovered in great qualities in the cities of preislamic period also played
a great part in the process of
formation of ceramic-faience production. A.Lukas points out that glassy connecting substances played
undoubtedly major part in the formation
of new kind of ceramic production – faience
[36] witnessing a desire to luxury, broad range of trade, similarity of tastes and so on. Accounted
show that technical and
technological successes achieved by the
end of the first millennium B.C., and the appearance of poured ceramic wares
gave new impetus to development of artistic creativeness and revealed wide
perspectives to achieve final end of faience wares production. Construction of furnaces of caolin-fireproot clayss
with various admixtures favoured
intensive development of metallurgic and
ceramic production of Azerbaijan. S.M.Kaziyev [37], O.Sh.Ismizade [38],
G.M.Akhmedov [39], G.A.Giddy [40], F.A.Ibragimov [41], K.G.Aliyev (42), A.B.Nuriyev [43],
M.M.Aliyev and M.A.Kashkay [44] point out that exploitation of high-grade
clays, quartzites and Island feldopar necessary for pottery started from
the oldest times. Unfortunately,
chemical and mineralogical composition
of bricks made of smelting baking furnaces solution of different periods has not yet been studied.
Some investigators disregarding
mineralogical composition and physic-mechanical properties of brick-work
solutions and locations of kaoline-fireroaf clays deposite deny
production of faience wares in the medieval cities of Azerbaijan. Foundation
part of Kabala and Karasankal (Khanlar region) ceramic furnaces of the IX-X
centuries, according to chemical and technological analysis, were filled with
rubble of kaoline-fireproof clay. Outward side of Walla of these archlike soured
furnaces was coated with knoblike of feldspar rock admixtures. When laying chamotte-bricks,
kaoline-fieproof local clays changing
no their properties from high temperatures
affect up to 13300C and higher served as a binding material [40-43].
Archaeological material which was
chemically analysed is similar to mineralogical composition of stated deposits.
As is known, traditional methods form where there is sufficient quantity of
necessary material [46-45]. High-temperature thermal regime within the limited of 700-10000C [47-52] and higher [48]
was achived [49–57] owing to a furnace with open flame, powerful draught [50–36].
This process was a final stage in local
faience sarthenware production. Z.M.Buniyatov notes that foccils output was carried out at places where there at
present minerals and metals are mined.
From eneolithic epoch non-plastic materials with inert fillers of mineral origin were used in all kinds
of ceramic wares as admixturebinder. As a result of analyses of ceramics found
in settlement and funeral monuments
from bronze epoch to developed Middle
Ages it was established that is bindeng means there were used astrinhent materials of different kinds:
gypsum, lime, alabaster, marble,
olay-gypsum, salt, natural soda, alum, egg-white, bass-wax, resin, starch,
blood, milk, curds, etc. insuring
mechanical firmness of wares. In the
beginning of developed Middle Ages
plastic clays were used as binder for quartz and fire-proof materials beging
the basis of faience wares.
Archaeological and ethnographic observations demonstrated that natural solid non-heatproof masses
(more than 300 kinds of arboreous and shrub sorts, such as: oriental oak,
taragatch, Kakh and Eldar pine-tree, archap, nut-tree (59–9–45, 83) counseled
mostly of carbon and renewing kinds of fuel that were used in the ancient times in everyday life and for chemical
works. Perhaps, intensive use of Eldar pine-tree for burning ceramic wares and
building houses and constructing [53] ships led to its mass destruction [54]. It
was established that when controlling furnace process one may achive great thermal effect on the condition that
there is a little quantity of pine firing. It
seem that when firing faience wares masters-artisane of Azerbaijan
knew the secrets of regulating of air
input into the furnace aiming at obtaining carbon dioxide (CO2) to
balance burning operation on the whole.
Ancient traditions
in the production of artistic ceramics
in the cities of Azerbaijan developed further preserving their originality,
style, characteristic features and forming various artistic schools. In the discovered
ceramic-faience wares there are
peculaur features of technological and artistic distinctions of various
schools. In the process of historical
development these schools succeeded in
realizing their innermost feelings, moral and
aesthetic ideals in unsurpassed ceramic vessels, spilendid architectural
constructions, articles of decorative-applied arts and original miniatures; all
this met social, economic, climatic
conditions, production engineering, level of civil engineering
works and ethiils traditions.
Since the beginning of
developed Middle ages the role of Baylagan, Baku, Gyandja, Barda, Shamkhor,
Kabala, Shalakha, Shabran and other towns as a link and trans-shipping point between the two greatest world cultural
and religious centers. International trade paths linking Azerbaijan, with
eastern Slavs, Syria, Iraq, Central and Minor Asia, Eastern Europe, Baltic
states, Scandinavia and the Far East
ran as cross these towns. Merchants came
to trade here, captives, whole tribes and peoples crossed these places, dissatisfied and fugitives
from the East and the West took refuge. Using comparative and chemical
analysis of mass archeological material
and, faience in particular, one may find
technical and technological contacts of artisans, traces of their migration. Besides, countries and peoples of
this region developed in terms of
constant cultural contacted and trade exchanges. Artisans exported to distrant
lands a big variety of goods and also that of
articles manufactured by other artisans. Exchange of knowledge and experience was still more important for them. Therefore, they were
customers of literature and spreaders of alchemical treatises, and they
popularized new technical methods, traditions and achievements of the peoples
of these lands to produce such goods at places.
Artisans and merchants
from the cities of Azerbaijan went on
mutually beneficial trade with the
countries-producers of faience. In these
countries trey sold saffron, paints, madder [56–25], ceramic earthenware [57], handicrafte [58] and mineral raw
material. Simultaneously Iranian, Syrian, Greek, Egyptian, Chinese and
Indian masters-artisans could get
acquainted with original handocraft
traditions of Azerbaijan cities; some of them even settled down here. The
documents demonstrate that artisans, born at one place, but trading at another
one, took important place in the economic life of the country. Thorough
analysis of faience wares from the cities of Azerbaijan allows to make
some conclusions not only about the
character and possibility of ceramic-faience handicrafts in the medieval cities
but discovers unrevealed traces of
technological capacity of medieval masters – ceramists.
At present some investigators taking on
into account rapid economic
growth of the pre- and post-Islamic epoch are inclined to think that if there
are no any sources on some branches of
production, such as faience manufacture, then it is impossible to insist
on its local origin. A discovery of no deformed refined faience wares in archaeological
excavations of towns is tied up in an
ungrounded stamp “imported”. Functionality of each new everyday article of the Middle Ages is to be
considered in integral whole with its social and economic nuances.
A more complex and at the
same time correct method is needed for the study of information and facts at
present, that is the expansion of possibilities of integrated sciences.
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volumes. Baku, V.1. "AN Azerb.SSR", 1958; Ahmedov G.M….; Gadjiyev
A.A. Renaissance and Nizami poetry.
Baku, "Elm", 1980.
56. Guseynov R.A. Town and
commodity - monetary relations in the Transcaucasia, XI-XII centuries. Bartold
readings, M., "Nauka", 1978. Thesis of reports and communications.
57. Pigulevskaya N.V. …, Tshapova
Y.L. Essays on history of the antique glass manufacturing (on materials of the
Nile valley). M., "MGU", 1963.
Address: Az1143, Azerbaijan
Republic, Baku-143, prospect 115. Academy of Sciences of the Azerbaijan
Republic Institute of Archaeology and Ethnography.
Ramazanly Hasanaga
Khanhasan ogly.
Археологические
методы 60-70-х годов, основывающихся на полуфактах не отвечают современным
требованиям воспроизводству процессах древних фаянсовых производств. Когда
ставится вопрос об использовании
фаянсовых изделий в глубокий древности и о производстве их в
первой фазе первого периода, третей
технической революции мнение специалистов - общественников по этому
поводу вопросу разделяются. некоторые
из них обвиняют народ в неуменение и в замктности. Создаются искусственная
Путаница в логика - психологический
настройке разработанной А.Н.Луком.
Ключевые слова:
археология, производство, фаянс ремесленники, путаница, логика-психологические.
Введение
Чтобы полностью раскрыть суть идеи сложных технологических,
археологических артефактов, таких как фаянс, одновременно параллельно нужно
исследовать логику и психику древних средневековых мастеров -
ремесленников; надо глубже проникать в
указанную производственно деятельность
средство удовлетворения внешний потребности человека.
Заключение
Для производства фаянсовых изделиях безусловно требуется
союз "Объеденной" и местной
деятельности - то есть интеграция внутренних и внешних теории и опыта. К сожалению, пока не изучены полностью проблемы принципов периодизации
развития керамико-фаянсовых производств
Северного Азербайджана и цикл процесса причин одновременное появление местных
фаянсовых изделий в начале III тысячелетию
до н.э.
Summary
The existence of distinctive applied art of faience manufacture
in Azerbaijan mey be considered as one of highly interesting and valuable
contributions of our people into the treasury of world applied art. Manufacture of faience in Azerbaijan relate
to the most ancient traditions, it has
been developing within last five
millenniums due to titanic creative
acuity of the population of our
country. However in contemporary conditions in view of material difficulties the original pieces of faience reflecting the rich,
Varied, Philosophical, artistic intimae word of the manufactures vied their
place to half-cina produced by industrial whey.
Introduction
Faience manufactured in
North Azerbaijan since epoch of Eneolithes (III millennium b.c. till a.d.
XIV millennium but it have study in
Azerbaijan archaeological science yet.
During the centuries these manufactured articles were considered to be
"Writes of art". But the existence of traditional ceramics, emergence of the newest scientific integration in some extent changed attitude to these items,
put faience in harmony of natural and economic factors in a field on a large
shale.
Conclusions
Revealing thorough
analysis scientific estimation of archaeological, historical fasts reflecting
the ancient history of Azerbaijan, acguainstanse of the community of world
Peoples with the cultural achievements of
Azerbaijan people is the most
haly duty of the historians archaeologists, ethnographers of our country, which since the end of the XX century took
the path of independent, palitical, economic
and cultural development.