THE MAJOR TRADITIONAL RELIGIONS IN MODERN KAZAKHSTAN: THEIR
BRIEF HISTORICAL ORIGINS, CONTEXTUALITY AND SUBSEQUENT DEVELOPMENT.
By Gulnara Kussainova,
L.Gumilyov Eurasian National University,
Astana, Republic of Kazakhstan.
The two major
traditional religions in modern 21st
century in Kazakhstan are Islam and Orthodox Christianity. In this
article we give the brief historical origins of these two religions, their
current religious conditions in Kazakhstan, and also mutual
relations between these two main confessions.
Islam
in Kazakhstan has some unique qualities which allow us to speak about a
Kazakhstani variant of Islam. One of
the factors which affects the special nature of Islam in Kazakhstan is the fact
that it took a long time for Islam to be finally adopted by Kazakh nomads. Islam first arrived in Kazakhstan in the
eighth century. Only in the sixteenth
century did Kazakhs begin identifying themselves as Sunni Muslims of Khanafit
Mazhab. Even in the eighteenth century
Islam as religious doctrine, and a way of life, remained uncommon in the
conscience of the Kazakh people.
“Before
Islam first took root in Central Asia in the seventh century A.D., the area
already had been exposed to other religions: shamannism, Hellenism,
Manichaenism, Buddhism, and Zoroastrianism” [1; 105]. The Kazakhs were
converted to Islam with the arrival of Arabs to Central Asia. Islam was widely
adopted by Kazakhs in many respects thanks to missionary activity of the governors of the Samanids. The
ancient Kazakh city of Taraz became the centre of the new religion. Toward
the end of the 1300s the Golden Horde became the
preacher of this new religion
of Islam among the people of Central Asia at this time.
The considerable role in Islam popularization amongst
the nomads belongs to a Sufi
philosopher Hodja Akhmed Yassawi, ranked by Moslems of Kazakhstan to the most sacred person after Mohammed.
Today many Moslems worship at the
Mausoleum of Yassawi.
«Generally the pilgrimage to tombs of religious-patrimonial authorities,
to worship anybody except Allah
is considered as an
infringement of norms of Orthodox
Islam. However, practically in all of the Islamic world, except Saudi
Arabia, Moslems worship the sacred» [2]. Yassawi had made a strong impact on the distribution and establishment of
Islam in territories of Kazakhstan and Southern Siberia. “Sufist philosophy in its early form
preached self-denial and asceticism in reaction to the growing materialism of
Arabic society engendered by the bounty of conquest. The object of the early
Sufis was to go beyond reason and emotion, striving to become one with God through
mystical contemplation; in this respect, Sufism had been compared with Zen Buddhism and other Eastern religions”
[3; 118]. “In quite a few of his poems, restraint, compassion for the
needs of the people, and decency are propagandized” [4; 49]. The religious success of the Sufis had been also conditioned
by the fact that Yassawi and his pupils preached ideas of Islam in Turkic
languages, considered the mental level
of the nomadic population, the strong independence of women and even allowed
women to follow the Sufi tariqa(h)[1]
[2]. The city of Turkestan where Yassawi lived and preached is
considered a small Mecca among believing Moslems of Kazakhstan and is said to
be advocated by the mullahs as substitutes for the hajj [5].
Since 1700 the
Russian influence had increased
on the Steppe Kazakh land which
in the religious sphere was
reflected in a weakening of
positions of the Islamic faith by means of a gradual replacement of Islam by
pre-Islamic religious heritage – tengrianism and shamanism. However, as V.
Hljupin writes «a known historic fact of Western-Siberian governor General
G.Gasfort’s attempt “to invent” a separate religion for steppe nomads in due
time the attempt did not meet the
understanding at emperor Nikolay I and remained non-realised» [6]. There were
also some attempts by the
Russians to convert Muslims to Orthodox Christianity, but “by and large the Muslims remained free to practice their own religion and customs,
except when provisions of the sharia were “repugnant” to Russian justice” [7].
At the time of the October revolution in 1917 there were in this predominantly
Sunni region one mosque for
every 700 to 1000 inhabitanta of the territory, 595 religious medreses and 6300
religious schools [8; 305].
The Soviet period is characterized by a propagation of militant atheism and
general communistic ideology. In Kazakhstan the insignificant number of institutes of Islam
continued to function in regions where the
number of Moslems prevailed over non-Moslems, mainly among inhabitants of the countryside adhered to
some traditions of Islam.
With the collapse of the Soviet system the revival of traditional religions – Islam
and Orthodox Christianity in Kazakhstan – began. In the early 1990s with an active financial support of Turkey, Egypt, and Saudi Arabia‘s
building of mosques and spiritual schools in all of the territories of the Republic was renewed.
By 2009 almost 3200 mosques, churches and houses of
worship were actively
functioning in the Republic. By
2010 according to the data from the
Spiritual Division of Moslems of Kazakhstan, the religion of Islam in Kazakhstan is professed by 9 million
Moslems. Among them there are representatives of 24 nations, and
the general number of Moslems in the country makes 67 % of the population. Sunnism of Khanafit Mazhab is the faith professed in Kazakhstan which is confessed by majorities of Kazakhs, and the ethnic groups of Tatars,
Bashkirs, Uigurs, Uzbeks, Karakalpaks, Kyrgyz, Dungans living in the Republic of Kazakhstan. Out of 2337 operating religious institutions of Islam 2334
belong to Sunnis and 3 to Shiits, and the number of registered mosques in all cases totals 2195. Chechens
and Ingushes of Kazakhstan profess Sunnism of Shafiit Mazhab. Organizationally
Sunnism of Shafiit Mazhab is not
formally recognized in the Republic of Kazakhstan. In 1998 a
Shiit mosque was opened in Almaty, then
in February 2001 the mosque of «House of Kazakhstan» (or the so-called Vainakh
Mosque) was officially registered in Pavlodar, and collectively there are only a few Shiit mosques in the Republic compared
to over 2000 Sunni mosques in the whole country.
Until 1990 the functions of the Supreme Division of Moslems was carried out by
the Spiritual Division of
Moslems of Central Asia and the
Republic of Kazakhstan in Tashkent. In January 1990 the first Kurultaj
of Moslems of the Republic proclaimed the formation of the Spiritual Division of Moslems of Kazakhstan (the SDMÊaz), the new organization independent from SDM-Tashkent. The deputy of
the Supreme body of KazSSR of the
12th convocation Ratbek Nysanbaev, who soon renamed himself according to national manners into
Ratbek Hadzhi Nysanbaj-uly, became the first mufti of the Republic of Kazakhstan. According to the charter accepted by
Kurultaj, this appointment became a
lifelong appointment, but further political
events brought some gradual
updating.
According to V.Hlupin, at the moment of gaining
independence the Republic of
Kazakhstan in respect of Islam showed the
respective unequal weight of paradoxes and the main thrust of them consisted in the fact
that while the majority of Moslems
of Kazakhstan formally belonged to Sunnism of Khanafit Mazhab, ethnic
non-Kazakhs dominated in the
management of SDMÊaz of the first few years
of independence, mainly ranking to the
advantage of Shafiit Mazhab – Chechens, Ingushes, and
others [6].
On December 13th 1991 the political group "Alash" [9] calling
themselves the “National Front
of "Alash", captivated the central Almaty mosque by force and declared the deposition of mufti Nysanbaj-uly
and his subsequent replacement
by the imam of the Taldy-Kurgan
mosque Mashanlo. However the activity of the
political group Alash did not meet broad support among the general population. On December 15th
the Almaty OMON attacked the mosque, and
deposed Mashanlo. The leaders of "Alash" were subjected to instant justice. The actions of Alash were qualified by the authorities as malicious
hooliganism. The leader of the "front" Aron Atabek Nutushev and some
of his supporters received only
one year of probation [10].
On June 15th 2000 at the meeting of the Presidium of SDMÊaz mufti Ratbek Hadzhi Nysanbaj-uly informed the public of his desires
to retire because of personal
health problems. The urgently called 3rd Kurultaj of Moslems of Kazakhstan
accepted his voluntary
retirement of the mufti and
made some more important shifts – a naib-mufti (the assistant of mufti), the
bookkeeper of muftijat and the head of the
department of a mosque were also replaced. Ratbek Hadzhi has kept the place of a member of the Presidium of the SDMÊaz. He was offered the
choice to become the spiritual instructor and the adviser of a new mufti. Now the SDMÊaz
is headed by mufti Sheikh Absattar Hadzhi Derbisali, Doctor of Philology and
the former adviser of the
Embassy of the Republic of
Kazakhstan in Saudi Arabia. The Supreme mufti of the SDMKaz is also the Chairman
of the Counsel of muftis of Central Asia and Kazakhstan, the organization which
was established in 2007 with the collective
assistance of the supreme
muftis of Kyrgyzstan, Russia, Tatarstan and Turkey.
After the organization of the Spiritual Division of
Moslems of Kazakhstan the program of the
revival of Islam had then been
developed in the Republic: New mosques,
spiritual schools for the
preparation of mullahs had been opened, the Islamic spiritual literature in the
Kazakh language began to be published. In the city of Almaty the Central mosque
had been constructed and the Islamic Cultural Centre was opened. Another
powerful contribution to the revival of Islam in Kazakhstan was the creation of
the Fund of Islamic Culture and
Formation with the support of the state of the Republic of Kazakhstan. In 2010 the Republic of Kazakhstan was entrusted to head the Organization of Islamic Conference.
The
SDMKaz supervises building of mosques in Kazakhstan, and for this purpose the special commission was created. During
the past fifteen years more
than one thousand mosques were
constructed in the Republic of Kazakhstan,
and currently many of them are
branches of the SDMKaz. In
cities such as Almaty, Aktau,
Aktobe, Karaganda, Pavlodar, Satpayev and Ust-Kamenogorsk the largest of the new mosques were then opened. A number of Islamic
states, such as the Arab
Emirates, the Kingdom of Saudi
Arabia, Qatar, Turkey, show much interest in reviving the religion of Islam in the region: Many mosques were built with the financial support from Islamic funds of these foreign
countries. A new mosque "Nur-Astana" opened in Astana, the Capital city of the Republic of
Kazakhstan, in 2005 which was a
spontaneous gift of Qatar to the
Republic of Kazakhstan. Another
contribution from foreign
Muslim countries in this
revival and strengthening of positions of faith in Islam in Kazakhstan was underscored by the opening of the Egyptian University of Islamic
culture of "Nur-Mubarak" in Almaty which became possible because of an agreement signed in
June 2001 between the governments of the Republic of Kazakhstan and the Arabian
Republic of Egypt. Beginning in 2004 the first graduates
of "Islamic Studies" Department (ISD) received their diplomas of "Nur-Mubarak"
University, and subsequently accepted appointment to the various posts of imams in different
mosques of Kazakhstan. The
Islamic University "Al-Azhar" in Cairo accepts students from
Kazakhstan for Master’s and doctoral
degrees in Islamic Sciences, for which
their preparation is carried out on the basis of the aforementioned Agreement on Cooperation. Since 2007 preparation
of theologians for the Spiritual
Divisions of Kazakhstan began in Turkey. Also Turkey subsequently publishes the methodical literature for
theologians of the Republic of
Kazakhstan. In December 2008 the President of Turkey Abdulla Gul during
his visit to Astana presented
the Holy Quran to the Supreme
mufti Derbisali. Earlier in the 1990s the Holy Quran in the Kazakh language in
Caliph of Altai’s translation had been presented to the Moslems of Kazakhstan by Saudi Arabia. In November 2008 the Minister for Religious Affairs,
Vakufs and the Islamic Appeal
of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia visited Kazakhstan and gave a lecture at the
Palace of Peace and Reconciliation in the capital of the Republic – the city of
Astana.
In the early 2000s the Islamic religious literature in
the Kazakh and Arabian languages was published and imported to Kazakhstan from
Turkey, Pakistan and Russia. Nowadays the magazines "Iman" and
"Shapagat-Nur" are currently
released in Kazakhstan; the
monthly newspaper «Islam zhane Orkeniet» with a medium circulation of 44 thousand copies and other religious
literature and calendars in the Kazakh language are published. There are
full-time courses for the reception
of initial religious faith
education at many mosques, as
also it is possible to learn the Arabian language there.
The growing number of Islam faith believers who make a
pilgrimage to Mecca is steadily increasing. For example, according to the
SDMKaz data, in 1997 about 600 Moslems from Kazakhstan made hajj, in 2001 -
228, in 2002 - 177, in 2003 - 360, in 2004 - 1214, in 2005 – more than 900, in
2006 ã - 2740, in 2007 - 4030 Moslems11. In 2006 with a view to
control the organization of hajj the Commission on organization of pilgrimage
of Kazakhstani citizens was created in
the Republic of Kazakhstan.
Besides the above mentioned Mausoleum of Hodja Akhmed
Yassawi in the city of Turkestan, believers of the Republic highly appreciate the necropolises of
"Beket-Ata" and "Shopan-Ata" located in Atyrau oblast,
"Shora-Molda" in South Kazakhstan oblast, "Ajsha-bibi" and "Arstan-bab" in Zhambyl
oblast. Practically most regions in
the country have local holy sites
of their own religious-patrimonial authorities to where their descendants make the pilgrimage.
With the
strengthening of ties between the believers of Kazakhstan and the believers of the Muslim world Sunnism
of Khanbalit Mazhab began to spread into Kazakhstan. Sunnism of Khanbalit
Mazhab is characterized by the
negation of freedom of opinions in any
religions, fanatical severity in observance of ceremonial and Shariah
rules of law, and importantly
the limited application of kiyas. This mazhab might form the basis for the distribution of ideas of Islamic fundamentalism in the
Republic, - in consideration of
the SDMKaz [11].
Under the guiding
influence of the Pakistan
preachers a community of "Ahmadie" whose full name is «National
Ahmadij Muslim Zhamagat (Community) of the Republic of Kazakhstan» was eventually established. The Ahmadijs
registered their charter in 1994 in the Ministry of Justice of the Republic of Kazakhstan.
Their
have been some women’s religious societies established, for example, the “Muslim
Women’s League of Kazakhstan”, the “Association of Fatima”, the movement
“Rifakh”, and others. Their activities
are focused on cultivating ethnic and religious identities of people with a
Muslim tradition; which, in practice, is identified with the revival of
patriarchal values of traditional society.
Their activities are mainly of an educational and charitable nature
[12].
Sufism
as a faith-based belief in Kazakhstan is represented by the Naqshabandi (Naqshbandiya) and Yassawi
orders. The regional Uzbek Sufi leaders
influenced some of the Muslims in the Karaganda, Kyzyl-Orda and South
Kazakhstan oblasts. In 1992, there was also a philosophical and spiritual
society, “Sufi brotherhood”, established in Almaty. The society united philosophers, writers, and educators to “study
and reflect on Muslim Sufi philosophy”.
In
the early 1990s such religious
organizations as "Tarihatshylar", "Nurdzhi" and
"Zikr" were registered in Kazakhstan, whose religious activities were later forbidden by the political authorities. As well as these events there has
been developed a vigorous activity by
a number of religious organizations and communities in the Republic, which are already or had been in the past
considered by the SDMKaz to be pseudo-Muslim organizations, as
all of them appear to
contradict to Sunnism of Khanafit Mazhab, officially professed in the Republic by the Moslems of the country.
To
such organizations and communities the
SDMKaz refer the followers of the communities, such as, Ahmadie, bahai, doctrines of Ismatulla, mahdia,
salafija (vahhabism), takfir, sufi current of Kurban-ali and shija. Radicals
from "Hizb-ut-Tahrir", "East Turkestan", "al
Kaide", "Taliban", "Lashkar-and-tajba", "Brothers
Moslems", "Asbat-al-Ansar" by now had gone underground [13].
Thus the Muslims believers of Kazakhstan are now mostly Sunnis. They believe that
the right to freedom of conscience and religion is a prerequisite as well as a means of voluntarily entrusting of oneself to the one God and His will. There is such a provision which
already exists a-priori in the
Holy Quran as: “no compulsion
in religion”. It is in one sense the aspect of awareness of
the practical realization of the unique
individual’s private right to freedom of conscience and religion. All Muslim believers are obliged by
the Holy Quran to respect the unique individual religious beliefs of all others and strive to live in peace with them on the basis of
the social contract.
“Islam attaches great importance to the contract as to
the form of social existence set out above. The state and its laws are deemed as a form of social contract,
which has already achieved the
best possible compromise and a balance of interests of different social groups
and religious organizations” [14]. According to the Kazakhstani Muslims, the
best way to achieve lasting civil accord between different
people and nations, as well as the enduring
stability of public order, is a treaty. This applies to relationships within
the Ummah, as well as with non-Muslims. State laws are considered by Muslims as
the result of the agreement of all social groups on common rules of coexistence
in the same territory and in the same legal and economical system of the state. The state and its laws
are guarantees of ensuring the natural
and fundamental rights, and freedoms of its citizens. In the case of annihilation of the constitutional foundations and
termination of legitimate institutions of state power, and the establishment of
a political regime which does not respect basic human rights, people have a fundamental and compelling right to
consider the legitimacy of such a regime. Under the law that protects
fundamental rights and freedoms it is not only a civil but also a religious duty of all Muslims
to observe the legislation of their country as the highest social contract above all others between citizens.
The Muslims can express their dissenting
views and beliefs within
the framework of the existing
legislation. All forms of discrimination are prohibited in Islam.
Islam does not prescribe any particular form of
government and rule. Calls for civil disobedience in Islam are forbidden. No
government and no power can be declared "divine" and irresponsible to
the people. Unlike the Social Concept of Orthodoxy in Christianity, where in special cases, there can be calls by
the church authorities for peaceful civil disobedience to the civil authorities, the Social
Doctrine of Muslims categorically opposes such a possibility. The ordinary citizen has the right to
control all power. The
Kazakhstani Ummah, recognizing the
Constitution of the Republic of Kazakhstan as the supreme treaty, which
regulates the lives of the
entire population of the country, recognizes the fundamental authority right of the supreme bodies, elected by
the ordinary citizens, including Muslims, to
decide important questions, in accordance with the basic law of the country for
the benefit of all Kazakhstani citizens.
The attitude of Muslims towards the traditional religions is fixed in the Quran where Allah (the
one God) proclaims the equality of all other religions to Muslims. This
provision is very important for such a multi-confessional country as is Kazakhstan. Initially the
attitude of Muslims towards other religions is not traditionally determined by the subjective emotions of an individual person but by the will of Almighty God. Allah calls upon the kindness and justice of
Muslims to non-Muslims. Only in case of aggression from Non-Muslims must Muslims take defensive steps to protect themselves and their loved ones;
nevertheless the peace talks take priority over the force.
Muslims do not practice proselytism. Muslims can marry
Christians and Jewess. Muslims always want to have a dialogue with
representatives of traditional religions. But their attitude towards pseudo-Muslim extremist organizations is extremely negative. The SDMKaz strongly condemns terror
and extremism.
The SDMKaz is always ready to cooperate with other faiths to promote the spiritual revival of the
society and to avoid religious
hostility. A true Muslim will never knowingly be the instigator of the conflict with the Non-Muslims.
Orthodoxy is the
second most widespread religion
in Kazakhstan. In 2003 the
Russian Orthodox Church (the ROC) had 230 parishes in the Republic [15]. In general the Orthodoxy in
Kazakhstan is represented by the individual parishes of the
Russian Orthodox Church and Communities of Old Believers. The history of the origin of Orthodoxy in
the physical landscape of the Kazakh land goes back to the former occupancy times of
occurrence of military settlements in the
territory of Kazakhstan, soon after the union of Kazakhstan with the Russian Empire. In 1871 the
Turkestani Eparchy was formed. Nowadays the
currently existing Almaty, Shymkent and Tashkent Eparchies originate
from the original Turkestani
Eparchy.
In 1872 archbishop Sophonios – S.V.Sokolsky – was initially appointed the first
Kazakhstan eparch in Vernensky and Semirechensky Eparchy where he supervised within 5 years until 1877. Before the revolution of 1917 Orthodoxy in
comparison with other religions of the region, enjoyed special privileges, as a consequence of being the state
religion of imperial Russia.
The
establishment of Soviet power subsequently
followed the prosecution and persecution of the Russian Orthodox Church. By the end of the 1930s there were only some churches in Kazakhstan, as subsequently many of them were
destroyed or used as warehouses and workshops. In 1945 a new and vigorous revival of the ecclesiastic life began in the
country – the Kazakhstan Eparchy was recreated
and renewed, and the archbishop Nikolay – N.Mogilevsky
supervised from1945 to 1955. During this time of Soviet power church donations were deducted in
various funds mainly for Soviet
Fund of Peace. Thanks to the vigorous activity of archbishop Nikolay old
churches began to be restored and new churches to be constructed in the
Republic. Later archbishop Nikolay became the metropolitan, and in 2000 he was
canonized by the Jubilee Cathedral.
In 1991 the Holy Synod of the ROC divided all
parishes into three eparchial divisions: Almaty-Semipalatinsk, Shymkent, and Ural. That sweeping reform met broad support
neither at clergy level, nor
among laymen. Nowadays orthodox parishes are divided as follows:
Almaty-Semipalatinsk eparchial division in 1999 was transformed into Astana and
Almaty Eparchy. This new Eparchy
includes parishes in the cities of Astana and Almaty and in Almaty, East
Kazakhstan, Karaganda and Pavlodar oblasts. In the Ural and Guryev Eparchy
parishes of Aktyubinsk, Atyrau, West Kazakhstan, Kostanaj and Mangystau oblasts
are united. The Shymkent and Akmolinsk Eparchy includes parishes of Akmolinsk,
Zhambyl, Kyzylorda, North Kazakhstan and South Kazakhstan oblasts.
The Archbishop Alex – Andrey Kutepov who graduated
from the Moscow Spiritual
Academy in 1984, became the first spiritual head of the revitalized ROC in post soviet Kazakhstan. For his
contribution to the
strengthening of international and inter-confessional consent Archbishop Alex
has been presented to government
awards: in 1995 Archbishop Alex was honoured with the Presidential Award of Peace and Spiritual Consent; in 1999
he was awarded with a medal "Astana", in 2001 – a medal "10
years of Independence of the Republic of Kazakhstan", in 2002 – an award
"Parasat". In October 2002 by the decision of the Holy Synod
Archbishop Alex was appointed the Archbishop of Tula and Belevsk.
On May 7th 2003 the Synod decided to found the Metropolitan District in Kazakhstan whose structure included
Astana, Ural and Shymkent Eparchies. Astana became the center of the district,
and the head of the district was proclaimed Metropolitan Methodius – N. Nemtsov who graduated from
Leningrad Spiritual Academy. Metropolitan Mefody has been awarded «Saint
Equiapostolic Prince Vladimir» of the first degree, «Blessed Prince Daniil of
Moscow» of second degree, «For Honourable Services to the Country» of the
second degree, "Friendship" Order. Before his appointment to
Kazakhstan Methodius was the
metropolitan of Voronezh and Lipetsk, the chairman of the historical and legal
commission at Russian Orthodox Church, the Counsel on communications with
public and religious organizations and associations under the President of the
Russian Federation, a member of an editorial board of the annual edition of the
Russian Science Academy «World Religions».
Since 1991 in the Division of Almaty Eparchy there was
established the Spiritual Academy, the training term in which was 2 years at
the beginning, nowadays increased up to 4 years. They train priests and
wardens, with a total of 50 daytime students. Annually 4-5 persons go to
spiritual educational institutions of the Russian Orthodox Church in Russia. A
considerable number of priests study extramurally in the Spiritual Academy of
Moscow. Since 1997 the branch of the Saint Tihonovsky Theological Institute has
been functioning in Karaganda. In September 1998 in Almaty a 4 year theological
missionary college was opened. Nowadays in many churches there are church
parish schools where they teach Orthodoxy basics. Also there are Sabbath schools
both for children and adults.
The restoration and building of churches, which was
initiated by archbishop Nikolay, continue until now. It also became possible
due to the improvement of material resources of orthodox cultural associations.
The dynamics of growth within the sphere of orthodox churches is the following
– in 1956 in Kazakhstan there were 55 parishes, by 2003 there were 230
parishes, by January 1st 2008 Russian Orthodox Church had 281 religious
associations to which belong 257 objects of cult. In recent years there have been constructed many churches and
temples, such as in Almaty – a temple of Christ the Savior, in Karaganda –
Vedensky Cathedral, in Pavlodar – Annunciation Cathedral, in Ekibastuz –
Seraphim-Iver Cathedral, in Taldykorgan – Johan-Theological Cathedral, in Ust
Kamenogorsk – Saint-Pokrovsky Temple, in Kostanay – Constantine-Yelena Temple
and Saint-Nikolai Temple in Satpaev, constructed by Kazakhmys Corporation. In
June 2005 people celebrated the 150th anniversary of Constantine-Yelena
Cathedral in Astana.
In the early 1990s three women’s and three men's monasteries – one in
East Kazakhstan and two in Almaty oblasts (Serafimo-Feognotovsky man's deserts
and deserts of Spassko-Silujanov) were opened in Akmolinsk, North Kazakhstan
and West Kazakhstan oblasts [11]. In 2009 in Astana the president of the
Republic put a capsule on the site
of a new Cathedral. In 2010 it is planned to finish the building of one of the
greatest orthodox Temple in the region, the Temple of Ascension of Divine Mother. Churches are
mostly crowded during the holidays of Christmas, Epiphany, Easter and Trinity.
In the late 1990s J.Trofimov wrote about penetration of a Russian
Orthodox Church Abroad of Karlovatsky split who
tried to extend their influence among Orthodox Christians in Kazakhstan. In
Russia it has the parishes where it has been
registered under the name «Russian Free Orthodox Church». In Almaty and
Semipalatinsk there were groups of the believers adhering to the ROC Abroad. In
1995 they made an attempt to register Almaty Church and
the community of ROC Abroad. Their registration was declined, as their charter
contains political requirements of a discriminative nature, including the
requirement which declares «the necessity to struggle against the godless power
in Russia» [2] .
From June 20 till June 22nd 2007 the session of XIV
General Assembly of the Inter-Parliamentary Orthodoxy Assembly took place in
Astana. Prominent politicians, visitors from foreign countries and heads of
religious associations gave lectures. As the results of the forum the
participants adopted the resolution on holding the XV General Assembly of the
Inter-Parliamentary Orthodoxy Assembly in 2008.
Celebration of
the 100th anniversary of
Voznesensky Cathedral in Almaty in 2007 became one of the most significant
events for orthodox religious associations. 100 years ago Russians and Kazakhs,
together with Kalmyks, Tatars and Ukrainians, took part in building of
Voznesensky Cathedral. Andrey Zenkov, the regional engineer at that time, had
been appointed responsible for implementing of all construction work.
Undoubtedly, he played a considerable and bright role in the history of
building the Cathedral. The construction work of the Cathedral finished in August 1907. Because
of the will of local residents the Cathedral was devoted to the «Ascension of
our Lord Jesus Christ» [16]. The Voznesensky Cathedral is the embodiment of the
so-called Russian style on the new Asian borders of the Empire, and, perhaps,
is the most remarkable display of this kind of architecture of that period. The
similar example of well kept Russian architecture at the beginning of the 20th
century is difficult to find in the territory of Central Asia. The Voznesensky
Cathedral can be compared to the Temple of the Ascension in Kolomna which is
near Moscow. Fine architectural forms, stylistic features, surprising design
for that time make the Saint Voznesensky Cathedral a unique monument of
architecture in the late ÕIX and early XX century far outside the Republic of Kazakhstan [17].
In the early 1990s the process of transfer of
temples-monuments to churches began in Russia, and the Almaty Eparchy had also
begun working in this direction. At government level the question of
restoration of the original form and functions of the Cathedral was brought up.
In 1994 it was decided that the building should function as a museum. The
government allocated budgetary funds for the initial work for preparation of
the central hall and an altar for carrying out of divine services. And a year
later, on April 8th 1995 by the decision of the President of the Republic
Nursultan Nazarbayev the Cathedral was officially transferred in legally
termless and gratuitous use of Almaty and Semipalatinsk Eparchy.
The ROC keeps contacts with foreign orthodox churches.
In September 2007 Metropolitan Varnensky and Velikopreslavsky of the Bulgarian
Orthodox Church Cyril visited Kazakhstan. During his visit the metropolitan
visited orthodox parishes of Astana and Almaty and gave a lecture on «Short
history of the Bulgarian Orthodox Church» in the Palace of Peace and Reconciliation
in Astana.
In November 2007 in Pavlodar at the initiative of the
director of Blagoveshchenskij Cathedral Amfilok the first exhibition of ancient
copper icons of the XVI-XX centuries of Kazakhstan took place in a local
historical and regional-study museum. Also in November 2007 in another
Kazakhstan city – Petropavlovsk, meetings and conversations with Andrey Kuraev,
the well known orthodox missionary, professor of Moscow Spiritual Academy were
organized.
Charity is one of the main priorities of the Russian
Orthodox Church. Spiritual and
educational work, and also financial help, is provided to orphanages,
hospitals, and homes for the disabled and elderly. Charity weeks are devoted to the celebration of Christmas and
Easter. Additionally, educational
activities are held on the feast day of Saints Cyril and Methodius, the well
known founders of Slavic script.
The orthodox charitable fund “Vedi”, founded by the
International Fund of Slavic Script and Culture, is located in Almaty. The fund is not a structural division of the
ROC of Kazakhstan. The fund’s
activities are primarily cultural and educational studies, regional history
studies, and publishing. The charitable
fund “Svetoch” conducts training courses for Kazakh applicants to enter
universities in the Russian cities of Novosibirsk and Tomsk.
In the early 1990s only one Orthodox newspaper was
issued in the Republic, the “Orthodoxy Light in Kazakhstan”, with a circulation
of 2000 copies. Currently, in addition
to the “Orthodoxy Light in Kazakhstan”, the newspapers “Vedi” and “Astanajsky
Orthodox Bulletin” are published monthly.
On the whole, the status of the Russian Orthodox
Church in Kazakhstan is becoming more prominent.
The stability
and tolerance of religious life in Kazakhstan society is ascribed, according to
J.Trofimov, to successful interconfessional dialogue and well developed
channels of social interaction. «Multiconfessionalism of Kazakhstan has a
number of specific reasons. Among them, it is important to allocate the
following: 1) the respectful attitude of Kazakh people to customs and beliefs
of other people of the Republic; 2) the absence of religious fanaticism at the
majority of Moslems of the Republic; 3) the specificity of historical formation
of the population of Kazakhstan, especially during the last hundred years,
which conditioned its multinational structure and 4) the aspiration of people
of all nationalities in the Republic to keep their national origin, adhering to
their own traditional religious ceremonialism» [2].
Islam and Orthodoxy in the physical landscape of the Kazakh land have a
centuries-old history of coexistence. The peaceful historical coexistence of
these two religions in the area is attributed to the fact that they are less orthodox than the
Orthodox Church in Russia or Islam in the Middle East [12].
Orthodoxy
and Islam (Sunnism of Khanafit mazhab) in Kazakhstan are known for their moderate
conservatism. Both Orthodoxy and Islam in the doctrine of Khanafit School of Law
in religious canons, and in light of the modern political situation are
characterized by their tolerant relation to institutes of power and by the
ability to find compromise with the state. Islam of Khanafit Mazhab is
characterized by tolerance to dissenters, exercise of the common local right, and
application in legal questions of free individual interpretation based on
analogies (kiyas). In defining the place and the role of religion in a political
system, namely in question on a correlation between secular and religious
models of a state, these two confessions have never confronted
the legitimate authority. Thus, the question of secularism of a state was never
challenged by the representatives of these confessions, and never became an
object of conflict between the clergy and the existing power. The
followers of these faiths positively perceive the existing model of the secular
state. Unlike various Christian and Islamic fundamentalists, as well as some
fundamentalists in new religions, these two large faiths, as
a rule, do not represent any threat in relation with each other, in relation to
other religions, or in the relation to the society and to the state. «Ethnic,
historical, cultural and mental commonness of the Turkic and Slavic people in
the extensive forest and steppe zone of Eurasia, with close and active
intercultural contacts throughout a long time in historical context,
undoubtedly, contributed to and still continue to secure the peaceful
co-existence of these religions in the past and present» [18].
There are several common
principles in Islam and Orthodox Christianity:
- There is no division of peoples into the “best and worst”, no statement of exclusivity of anybody
by birth or sex;
- Both denominations do not claim to have a status of state religion, they recognize secularism and act with distinct patriotic positions;
- Both religions underscore their
supranational character, excluding any superiority of one nation over another;
- These denominations argue
that peoples have every right to their national and cultural identity;
- Both
confessions can effectively cooperate with each other in questions of
peacemaking in the country and in a larger scale, preventing interconfessional and ethnic conflicts between Muslims and Orthodox
Christians, in providing joint charitable assistance to the victims of
ethnic conflicts;
- Islam and
Russian Orthodoxy can jointly carry out activities to preserve the cultural
heritage of the Orthodox and Muslim peoples, including mutual assistance in
restoration and protection of religious monuments of history and culture, in
construction of places of worship of both religions;
- Both faiths
react negatively to the dissemination of pseudo religious organizations and
destructive sects, and advocate for countering and neutralizing the negative
effects of their activities.
The important role in maintenance of interconfessional
harmony and stability in Kazakhstani society belongs to the state.
Muslim and Orthodox religious holidays of Kurban ayt
and Christmas are declared by the state as holidays in Kazakhstan.
In 2002, soon
after the terrorist act of September 11th, Kazakhstan created an
initiative and called Congress of Leaders of World and Traditional Religions.
The first forum took place in 2003. Congresses of Religions also «become an
organic and effective part of a global dialogue between religions of the modern
world». Such actions play «a significant role, promoting mutual understanding
between spiritual leaders, religions and people» [19].
Before the opening of the Second Congress in Astana in
2006 the Palace of Peace and Reconciliation was constructed, which became the
symbolical spiritual centre of the country. Various conferences and forums are
regularly conducted in the Palace. At the initiative of the President of
Kazakhstan the International Centre of Cultures and Religions was established
in the capital city of Astana, which began its work in the Palace of Peace and Reconciliation.
One of the goals of the Center is to
become «an intellectual laboratory of peace, consent and justice» under whose aegis it is necessary
«to expand the dialogue of representatives of different cultures and
religions». One of the important tasks of the Center is to coordinate joint
activity of representatives from secular and religious mass-media and youth
associations, and scientific and creative intelligentsia [19]. In July 2009,
the 3rd Congress of Leaders of World and Traditional Religions took
place in Astana.
According to the Constitution of 1995, the Republic of
Kazakhstan is a secular state. Among Central Asian states Kazakhstan is the
only republic where no official status is given to Islam as to the largest
faith in the Republic.
Thus, the religious balance of interests of various
faiths in the Republic of Kazakhstan has been conditioned by variety of factors
of historical, cultural, social and political character. All of these factors
have caused a certain religious balance between Orthodoxy and Islam in
Kazakhstan. Each of these faiths has its own stable niche in the religious
space of the country. This fact promoted the successful interconfessional
dialogue and contributed to finding possible options for cooperation between
the confessions. The interconfessional consent between the two large religions
of Kazakhstan has become a factor of stability and tolerance for the entire
varied religious life in the Republic of Kazakhstan.
Notes.
1.
James Critchow. “Islam and
Nationalism in Soviet Central Asia” in “Religion and Nationalism in Soviet and
East European Politics”. Edited by Pedro Ramet. Duke Press Policy Studies.
Durham, N.C. 1984, 282 p., p.105.
2.
ßêîâ Òðîôèìîâ. Ñîâðåìåííàÿ ðåëèãèîçíàÿ ñèòóàöèÿ â
Ðåñïóáëèêå Êàçàõñòàí. Ðåëèãèÿ â
îáùåñòâåííî-ïîëèòè÷åñêîé æèçíè Êàçàõñòàíà. Öåíòðàëüíàÿ Àçèÿ è Êàâêàç. ¹6(30) (2003),
CA@CC Press®AB.
3. James Critchow. “Islam and Nationalism in Soviet Central Asia” in
“Religion and Nationalism in Soviet and East European Politics”. Edited by
Pedro Ramet. Duke Press Policy Studies. Durham, N.C. 1984, 282 p., p.118.
4. “Dinii-mistik adabiyat” (Religious-Mystical Literature), OSE4 (Tashkent,
1973), p.49. See also “Ahmad Yassawi” in ibid., vol.I, (Tashkent, 1970), p.617.
5. Ashirov, Islam I natsii,
pp.48-49, 58, 60-61, 79, 81-82, 87-88.
6.
Â.Õëþïèí. “Áóíòóþùèé” èñëàì â Êàçàõñòàíå –
èñòî÷íèê óãðîçû ðåãèîíàëüíîé áåçîïàñíîñòè//Èíñòèòóò Ñòðàí ÑÍÃ. Èíñòèòóò äèàñïîðû è èíòåãðàöèè. Èíôîðìàöèîííî-àíàëèòè÷åñêèé áþëëåòåíü. ¹
34, 01.08.2001.
7. Count K.K Pahlen, Mission to Turkestan, edited by Richard A.Pierce (London: Oxford University Press, 1964),
p.229.
8. V.I Massal’skii, Rossia, Tom XIX (Turkestanskii krai) (St.
Petersburg, 1913), pp.336-337, cited in Baymirza Hayit, Turkestan im XX.
Jahrhundert (Darmstadt, 1956), p.305.
10. À.Ç.Àñûëáåêîâ Êòî åñòü
Êòî â Ðåñïóáëèêå Êàçàõñòàí. 1994-1995. Ñïðàâî÷íèê. Àëìàòû, 1995. p.
103.
11. Ìàòåðèàëû III
Ñúåçäà ëèäåðîâ ìèðîâûõ è
òðàäèöèîííûõ
ðåëèãèé http://www.religions-congress.org/content/view/124/35/lang,russian/
12. Àëìà Ñóëòàíãàëèåâà. Ýâîëþöèÿ èñëàìà â Êàçàõñòàíå. Öåíòðàëüíàÿ Àçèÿ è Êàâêàç,
¹4(5), 1999.
13. Æ.Àìåðáåêîâà Áîðüáà çà
óìû // Ìåãàïîëèñ, 9 ÿíâàðÿ 2006 ãîäà
14. Ðîëü äîãîâîðà â èñëàìå. 2001. http://www.archipelag.ru/agenda/strateg/konfess/concention/islam/.
15. Îíó÷êî Ì.Þ.
Ïîëèêîíôåññèîíàëüíûå îòíîøåíèÿ â Ðåñïóáëèêå Êàçàõñòàí â êîíòåêñòå ãëîáàëèçàöèè.
Ó÷åáíî-ìåòîäè÷åñêîå ïîñîáèå. – Àñòàíà, 2007. – 216ñòð.
16. Öåíòðàëüíûé Ãîðîäñêîé Àðõèâ Ðåñïóáëèêè Êàçàõñòàí, ô.153, ä.417 "à", ë.1.
17. Òóðåêóëîâ
Ò.Í.,Òóðåêóëîâà Í.Â. Âîçíåñåíñêèé êàôåäðàëüíûé ñîáîð.-Àëìàòû: Êóìáåç, 2001. –
272ñ.
18. Ìóõèò Àñàíáàåâ. Ñîâðåìåííàÿ ðåëèãèîçíàÿ ñèòóàöèÿ â Êàçàõñòàíå: ôàêòîðû
ðèñêà è ïîòåíöèàë ðåëèãèîçíîé êîíôëèêòíîñòè. ×àñòü 1. http://www.sarap.kz/rus/view.php?id=151.
19. Âûñòóïëåíèå Ïðåçèäåíòà ÐÊ
Í.À.Íàçàðáàåâà íà III Ñúåçäå Ëèäåðîâ ìèðîâûõ è òðàäèöèîííûõ
ðåëèãèé. 01.07.2009ã http://www.religions-congress.org/content/view/124/35/lang,russian/.
[1] A tariqa is an Islamic
religious order. In Sufism one starts with Islamic law, the exoteric or mundane
practice of Islam and then is initiated onto the mystical path of a tariqa.
Through spiritual practices and guidance of a tariqa the aspirant seeks ḥaqīqah -
ultimate truth.