Andragogy and distance education

Курінний О.В.,Патока Ю.Ю., Сумський національний аграрний університет

Andragogy, as promulgated by the late Malcolm Knowles, is a set of assumptions designed to facilitate adult learning and program planning. Distance education is a process of delivering education used extensively by adult learners. Burge (1988) proposed that the implications of andragogy to distance education be examined. This article continues in that direction. Following a brief overview of andragogical development, the author presents andragogy as a framework for discussing distance education programs designed for the adult learner. Andragogically compatible processes, such as the "general to specific" approach for developing learning contracts and individualizing course projects, and the "group charter" concept for learner participation in asynchronous discussion forums, are presented and discussed as examples of applying andragogy to climate setting and learner involvement in distance education settings.  

Andragogy

        The late Malcolm Knowles spent a career trying to formulate a theory of adult learning based on research and experience related to the characteristics of adult learners. It was not until the mid-1960's that he was exposed to the term "andragogy" by a Yugoslavian adult educator who was attending a summer session workshop at Boston University" (Knowles, 1990, p. 54). Knowles realized that this term more adequately encapsulated his ideas. In 1968, "Androgogy, Not Pedagogy" was published. This introduced the term to North America and began the rise in popularity of the concept and the term.

        By the end of the third quarter of the 20^th century, the concept of andragogy was firmly a part of adult education vernacular, practice and policy. It was more fully defined and developed with Knowles' 1970 publication of his now classic work, The Modern Practice of Adult Education: Andragogy Versus Pedagogy. He recognized that "adult education theorists in both Europe (especially Germany and Yugoslavia) and in North America are rapidly developing a distinctive theory of adult learning. And from this theory is evolving a new technology for the education of adults" (Knowles, 1970, p. 38). To differentiate this new technology from pedagogy, he indicated that he was giving this new technology a new name: andragogy, which he defined as "the art and science of helping adults learn." (Knowles, 1970, p. 38). Further, he indicated that andragogy was "premised on at least four crucial assumptions about the characteristics of adult learners that are different from the assumptions about child learners on which pedagogy is premised" (Knowles, 1970, p. 39). These assumptions related to the adult self-concept, experience, readiness to learn, and orientation to learning.

        Initially Knowles saw andragogy and pedagogy as being at opposite ends of a continuum. This was reflected in the subtitle of the book. Many educators reported to Knowles that the model had application to youth and children; "that young people learned better, too, when the andragogical model was applied" (Knowles, 1984, p. 6). So prevalent were these reports that in 1980, he revised the book and changed the subtitle to "From Pedagogy to Andragogy." He also added an additional assumption (motivation) to the previous four.

        Knowles (1984) maintained that andragogy was a "system of alternative sets of assumptions" (p. 64) about adult learning based on adult learning research and experience. He constantly admonished educators of adults to recognize that these assumptions were not empirically validated nor was andragogy a theory of adult learning. These admonitions not withstanding, many adult educators debated the value of andragogy as a theory of adult learning and program development rather than a set of alternative assumptions. Knowles himself seems to have added to this debate when he wrote the following: "I believe that andragogy qualifies as a theory according to both definitions (in Webster's Ninth Collegiate Dictionary). However, I prefer to think of it as a model of assumptions about learning or a conceptual framework that serves as a basis for an emergent theory" (Knowles, 1989, p.112).

        A major contribution of Knowles was the development and dissemination of the andragogical process of planning and operating educational programs for individual learners and organizations. The andragogical process consists of the following seven elements: (a) the establishment of a climate conducive to adult learning, (b) the creation of an organizational structure for participative learning, (c) the diagnosis of needs for learning, (d) the formulation of directions of learning (objectives), (e) the development of a design of activities, (f) the operation of the activities, (g) the re-diagnosis of needs for learning (evaluation) (Knowles, 1984, pp. 14-18).
Distance Education

         Distance education and distance learning programs are popular ways for adult learners to attain educational objectives. Moore and Kearsley (1996) indicate that "around the country and around the world, most distance education students are adults between the ages of 25 and 50. Consequently the more one understands the nature of adult learning, the better one can understand the nature of distance learning" (p. 153). The technology associated with this phenomenon allows virtually instantaneous access to instruction at times and places that are convenient to the adult learner rather than for the instructor or the institution. Distance education is a prominent and growing way to reach a widely dispersed population

Moore and Kearsley (1996) define distance education as follows:

                    Distance education is planned learning that normally occurs in a different place from teaching and as a result requires special techniques of course design, special instructional techniques, special methods of communication by electronic and other technology, as well as special organizational and administrative                     arrangements

                    Verduin and Clark (1991) discuss how distance education serves adult learners: "Before any propositions or designs can be advanced for effective distance education, recent research on what is known about adults, their learning styles, their motivations, and other related qualities needs to be reviewed and analyzed" (p. 21). They present a model of distance education and indicate that "further support for our model comes from some of the ideas associated with andragogy and learning styles" (p. 134). Moore and Kearsley (1996) recognize the value of andragogy as a "very helpful basis for the design and teaching of distance education courses, particularly with respect to motivational aspects" (p. 153).

        How does andragogy apply in distance education settings? The response to this question is the basis for the remainder of this article.  

Learner Involvement

        Knowles (1980) wrote "… the starting point in program planning is always the adults' interests, even though the end objective may be to meet their (and an institution's and society's) 'real' needs (p. 82). Facilitators in distance learning settings need to recognize and value that often they are dealing with experienced and competent individuals. Distance learning frequently involves the use of learning contracts or course completion plans in which learners negotiate with course tutors to design learning activities. The learning contract or course completion plan usually involves some or all of the following elements: (a) Description of Course or Individualized Learning Experience, (b) Learning Objectives, (c) Resources for Accomplishing Objectives (books, articles, journals, internet sources, individuals, and other materials), (d) Documentation, and (e) Timeline.

        Using the "general to specific" approach, each element of the process potentially allows for individual needs to be met. Generally, catalog course descriptions in college catalogs follow this approach. The first sentence or two provides a general overview of the course. The remaining sentences provide examples of specifics related to the course. Online course or individualized learning experience descriptions negotiated in this manner are responsive to individual needs. The "general to specific" approach can be used for required or elective, credit or non-credit courses as well.

        The formulation of learning objectives presents an excellent opportunity for the adult learner to express needs and to be an active player in deciding what is to be learned and when it will be learned. Application of the "general to specific" approach when designing learning objectives is useful when seeking ways to meet individual learning needs. Here, the learner negotiates both general and specific objectives clearly emanating from the course or learning experience description. Knowles (1980) points out that learning objectives "can be made congruent with the spirit of andragogy by describing what …[a learning plan]…will help learners do, rather than what it will do to people" (p. 121). The "general to specific" approach also can be applied to the selection of resources and serves as the framework for documentation of course completion.

        Individually designed course projects are another way of encouraging active participation in the learning process. In these instances, facilitators and learners have created course projects reflecting individual interests and needs. In addition to the more traditional term paper, final projects can be audio- or video-tapes, a CD-ROM, a revised manual or other means of demonstrating accomplishment of individual learning objectives. Participation in asynchronous online discussion forums can be enhanced through the use of a "group charter" in which the members of the discussion group set and agree on the expectations, rules, and responsibilities to be utilized within the group. This process taps into the notion that the more adult learners have participated in the formulation of rules and practices, the greater will be their participation.

        The need for recognition is another key to success in andragogically-oriented distance learning programs. Distance educators who understand this need should do the following:

        offer programs designed to increase the economic, social, psychological, and
        spiritual security of adults, and will provide an environment in which they feel
        secure while learning. They … also accept the fact that all people need
        recognition and they will be ingenious in creating numerous opportunities for
        adults to obtain recognition constructively. (Knowles, 1980, p. 86)

   As Burge (1988) indicated, andragogy provides a context for developing distance education programs. It also provides a framework to build a climate conducive to adult learning and a process for more actively involving the adult learner in the distance learning process. Distance educators and program developers are encouraged to review the vast information regarding andragogy and to incorporate the thinking of Knowles and others when developing distance education programs.
References

Mark H. Rossman. Andragogy and distance learning: together in the new Millenium.New Horizons in adult education. Volume 14, Number 1, Winter, 2000
Brookfield, S.B. (1986). Understanding and facilitating adult learning. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

      Burge, L. (1988). Beyond andragogy: Some explorations for distance learning design. Journal of Distance Education, 3 (1): 5-23.

        Knowles, M.S. (1968). Andragogy, not pedagogy. Adult Leadership, 16 (10), 350-386.

        Knowles, M.S. (1970). The modern practice of adult education: Andragogy vs.

        Knowles, M.S. (1980). The modern practice of adult education: From pedagogy to andragogy. (2^nd Edition). Chicago, IL: Association Press/Follett.

        Merriam, S.B. & R.S. Caffarella, (1999). Learning in adulthood. (2^nd Edition). San Francisco, CA.: Jossey-Bass.

        Moore, M.G. & G. Kersey. (1996). Distance education: A systems view. Belmont, CA.: Wadsworth.

Peterson's guide to distance learning programs. (1998). Princeton, NJ: Peterson's.