Justyna Łukomska-Szarek, Marta Włóka

Technical University of Czestochowa

EVOLUTION OF ADMINISTRATION AND MANAGEMENT IN PUBLIC SECTOR – FROM OLD PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION TO PUBLIC GOVERNANCE

Summary: The investigations of this publication centre on problematic of public administration evolution. First of all they focus on essence of management, as an issue essential for contemporary changes and challenges across all globe. In terms of this thematic, they presents main functions of management, which are obligatory in optional sphere. Then, they affect management in public sector, where leads on fundamental assumptions issue, question of public management reforms and resulting from them advantages, and also areas where public management is realized. The last part of this article presents steps of mentioned evolution, within which distinguish Public Administration, New Public Management and Public Governance. Moreover expresses their main presumptions and describes key assumptions and rules of functioning. Conclusion leads on essence of emergence these paradigms, which has brought on change of public sector role from passive to active and growth of significance of society, toward public service process.

Key words: management, management in public sector, Old Public Administration, New Public Management, Public Governance.

1. Introduction

The evolving for over time, problematic of management in public sector, which to the middle of XX century was equated solely with public administration question, to this day comprises relentless theme of numerous debates caused by a number of social-economic changes, both at the national as well as international level, aimed at improvement of standard of living societies on a scale of all globe.

This successive and long-term process of public sector reorganization primarily results from the fact of growth of communities expectations of many different countries likewise striving their authorities for amelioration of social service process. Additional determinants make a multitude of continued globalization processes and political transforms in the worldwide context.

Accordingly, there is no doubt that assurance of social harmony demands barriers elimination which are posed by public administration and consequently implementation the best administrative solutions, which first of all make efficient social service, and then create advantages conditions to individual progress of each unit. Justified seems to be therefore optimization of management process, understood as essence of public sector reforms.

Without regard for place occupied by various entities in economy, the management term always expresses the same idea. Differentiation underlies only the approach to chosen units mentality.

Literature on the subject treats management as a comprehensive process of achievement of established purposes, which is designed not only for organization as an unit, but also their members[1]. Essential determinant is fact that tasks separated as a part of these objectives should be fulfilled the most effectively as possible[2]. Without regard for character investigated unit, among key management functions, distinguish[3]:

· <<planning>>;

· << organizing>>;

· <<leading>>;

· <<controlling>>.

Activity in view of afore a mentioned sphere considers primarily management in the context of unit’s resources, and found thereby its solution in public sector.

Due to the fact, that management in public sector from over a few decades is solely directed at quest of the best ideas, striving for its improvement thus comprises constantly shifting theme. About this thematic focus the other part of this publication.

2. The meaning of management in public sector

A wide spectrum of economic challenges nowadays creates change of attitude to management processes by specific units. This dependency affects both private as well as public sector, where management assumes character of complex and long-range process, derivable by public choice theory[4]. According to A. Frączkiewicz-Wronka, approach to management in public sector, presents the same assumptions, which general approach to management, and doesn’t differ from rules which are applied in private sector. The most essential significance roleplays profile of analyzed sector, thus in the case of public sphere, presented below characteristics[5]:

· Necessity of fulfilled of diversified needs of large mass stakeholders;

· Subjective realization of public activities;

· Absence of payment of fulfilled functions;

· Absence of anonymity of public sector;

· Multitude of organizational barriers;

· Absence of autonomy in the case of fulfilled operation.

The issue of management in the area of public sector comprises current dilemma, executed so far academic studies. Similarly as in case of private sector, the priority of its activity is services delivering, but understood as public goods, which are funded by revenues from taxes in large and managed with using special adequate procedures. In view of legal regulations, it underlies appropriate authorities, thus is characterized by limited accountability[6].

Afore mentioned problematic in the area of funding of public goods provision to citizens, has been comprising one of the biggest barrier of public sector management since the 1970s, in the case of majority of developing countries. Continuous quest of solutions this issue, illustrates a number of undertaken over time, differentiated and at the same time mutual activities, defined as public management reform[7].

Ch. Pollit and G. Bouckaert define public management reform as <<deliberate changes to the structures and processes of public sector organizations with the objective of getting them (in some sense) to run better>>. Authors moreover polemize about specific phrases of this definition. <<Structures and processes>> treat as schemes of all public sector units (as an example: organizational structure of local self government units), or processes by which employees are recruited and motivated, likewise the law which regulates their functions and activity area. As per them << getting them (… ) to run better>>, means creating that kind of conditions, which increase efficiency of this entity[8].

The idea of public sector reforms focus on this public sector management which is utterly different from traditional administration, concentrated on restrictive approach to law and its enforcement especially regarding societies, while public management is focused on adequate allocation of entity’s resources, i. e. efficiently, well-balanced and successfully[9].

Accordingly, contemporary understanding of public sector management is equated with precise practice of workers teams of public sector units, which use a set of adequate procedures and rules to this. The essence of public management is defined in the context of three key areas, namely[10]:

· <<structure>> i.e. area of activities and competences based on the law, which enables satisfying of society’s needs;

· <<craft>> i.e. experience and a number of abilities, which executives have, treated as public sector managers;

· <<institution>> i.e. policy of leaded operation, values system, sense of social accountability.

Notwithstanding significant correlation occurring between these spheres, their role toward mission fulfilled by public sector’s units, was observed during global evolution of public management. However we should keep in mind, that stimulus to its successive progress haven’t been globalization’s processes only, but also limitations of popularized system of public administration at the time.

3. Evolution’s process of management in public administration

Analysis of literature on the subject leads on long-range process of development of public management sector, within which categorises a number of imperative paradigms. Their fundamental attribute comprises the fact that for over evolution, have a little bit of their characteristics, what is a result of mutual dependences and absence of clear boundaries between them. General classification of this evolution, distinguishes[11]:

· ‘Weberian’ Public Administration;

· New Public Management;

· Public Governance.

Other authors present wider approach to this issue, within which on one side define it as: Rechtsstaat; Public Administration; New Public Management and Public Governance[12] or the other side as following: Old Public Administration; Public Management; New Public Management; Public Governance[13].

The Rechtsstaat term, which in this classification appears the rarest, has become created in Germany in the XIX century as negation of postulated at that time <<polizeistad>> idea understood as <<police state>> likewise <<machtsstaad (state based on might)>> based on illegal and unrestricted rules and procedures[14].

This initiative clearly defined also like <<legalist system>> was aimed at exclusion of unlimited independence and despotism of authorities. In a way, referred to doctrine created at that time in Anglo-Saxon countries, which expressed <<rule of law>> conception[15], but approved especially aspects outside the law[16].

This <<legalist system>> conception has been primarily material dimension, which above realization of public services submitted the law, because social justice have to be based on legal framework[17]. It expressed the opinion that government fulfills imperative function toward society and is focused on juridical aspects of provided public services, therein their legislative credibility, juridical assessment of correctness, legal procedures[18].

As a consequence, this paradigm has led to official perception of administration, forgetting about its mission, i.e. social service. Even then, has roleplayed essential significance in the context of regulatory-administrative function of public administration[19].

The next step of analyzed evolution, encompasses problematic of ‘Weberian’ public administration, which by many authors is interchangeably referred old public administration or simply public administration. Before explanation of its assumptions, essential is defining the public administration term.

According to H. Wissink, E. Schwella, V. Fox, due to the fact that public administration is in precise dependence with society, is the more complicated to defining. A wide approach based on open systems theory, evaluates its as[20]:

· Structures and obligatory toward them procedures and processes;

· Activity oriented at society;

· Established area of functions and objectives, which contributes to creating of expected policy both at the central as well as local scale;

· Effectiveness of assumptions realizing toward present policy.

Conception of bureaucratic model, promulgated by Max Weber in time of orientation at measurement, control and improvement, was perceived as the most effective of the possible, way of unit’s functioning, directed at achievement of assumptive aims. Public sector activity the most commonly affected creation of documentation and procedures necessary to describing specific decision-making processes. This paradigm as apolitical separated policy and administration[21].

Activity which fulfilled as part of this <<perfect model>> was realized only by eminently specialized workers, elected by long-range and complex processes of recruitment. As per Weber, about its advantages indicate effectiveness, perfection, precision and control[22].

Philosophy of contemporary public administration diverges quite from above characterized model. First of all, nowadays public administration doesn’t comprise the management paradigm, but system which implements public policy and uses complementary components of management, for example: planning, organizing, controlling, etc., based on humanities and managed by governmental managers[23]. Among its assumptions, both at the central as well local level, distinguish: protection of policy system; creating formal nature in the context of social-economic changes; assurance social harmony and stability; creating that kind of conditions, which enable economic growth; assistance poorer society; development of public opinion; adequate reactions of public policy to economic-social changes[24].

With successive development of global economy and emergence on its background a lot of changes, many governments stood before problematic concerning meeting social-economic challenges as society expectations. In view of so complex issues as noticeable economical growth, consequences of climatic changes, problems with education, urbanism, transport, etc., at that time postulated assumptions of public administration, were insufficient. Accordingly, necessary was application this system of management which will be able to using considerable reserves, including also human resources in order to achievement of establishment objectives and protection from potential threats of environment[25].

Initiation public management paradigm as response for a number of mentioned changes assumed implementation in public sector units structured procedures and organizational division of labor in the context of: planning and expenditure of finance, objective assessment of activity and analysis of correctness of used resources, unit and methods of its management, relations between employees and its conducting, constricting and developing public sector units[26].

Conception of public management which is overlooked by many authors in afore mentioned, general classification of development of management in public sector comprised an impulse to creating on the grounds of it, New Public Management, which in turn roleplayed essential significance in public sector management at the global scale.

The period of fundamental growth of this paradigm, took place at the end of the XX century, in the time of diminished economy by traditional bureaucratic, and oriented at improvement of public sector through creating results both in the context of social as well as economic, likewise limitation of realized up to now expenditures. As New Public management priority was considered striving for application of market rules as part of public administration, oriented at improvement its efficiency through achievement assumptive objectives on the background of using resources[27].

New Public Management understood as ‘entrepreneurial government’, ‘market-based Public Administration’ and ‘managerialism’[28], according to pioneers i.e. D. Osborne’a and T. Gaeblera should be based on implementation several principles, namely: stimulation public sector through processes management; treating society as individual person; application of competitive methods; activity in accordance with established mission not only with the law; operations oriented at performance management; perception community as customers; promulgation of rules of entrepreneurship; implementation of methods, techniques and instruments of strategic management; decentralization of accountability; application market’s principles[29].

For over the time New Public Management has become presumed two-dimensional phenomenon, where on the one side comprises doctrine, which proclaims that public sector can be improved through implementation appropriate conceptions, techniques and instruments and on the other side comprises a set of practices and processes, therein: striving for growth of significance of ‘performance’ through implementation of output measurement; application specialized organizational methods; implementation hierarchical division of labor; using market mechanisms therein competitiveness, collaboration; emphasis on change of approach to society and treating them as customers[30].

Implementation of management methods using in private sector to public sector units presents postulated at that time approach to public administration. One of them expresses that public sector units are selected in terms of structure, procedures and business models. Second presents limited activity these units connected with absence of autonomy in the context of management of finances, human resources, etc.[31].

Besides many positive effects, which brought New Public Management reform therein decentralization of structures of public sector units, reduction of realizing expenditures or improvement quality of social services, it obtained also a lot of criticism. Negative consequences, among them distinguish for example, diminution of government’s role or considerable differences in the context of using methods and instruments between public and private sector, led to quest new paradigm of public management. Unsatisfying results of previous market transformations, created new view, i.e. Public Governance, which occurred on the background of essential presumptions, namely[32]:

· Progression of multifaceted management in terms of public needs;

· Limitations (results from decentralization of unit’s structure) in the context troubleshooting both in the social as well as economical sphere of complex society;

· Emergence of these difficulties and problems which require application of solutions based on collaboration;

· Growth of community expectations toward standard of delivering services.

As per S. P. Osborne Public Governance is perceived as elaborate, five-dimensional conception, which fundamental areas comprise[33]:

‘Socio-political governance’ understood as comprehensive dealings among society. In order to comprehension idea of created and implemented public policy, necessary is extensive approach to these relationships, understood as a whole. In this case, government isn’t the most important in the context of realizing of public policy, but relies on legitimacy other social participants.

‘Public policy governance’ understood as a process of defining of relations between authorities and networks, which are necessary to creating public policy and its implementation.

‘Administrative governance’ understood as process of efficient implementation of Public Administration rules and procedures which are adequate to expectations of nature of current society.

‘Contract governance’ presents rules of New Public Management in the context of contractual delivering services to community. According to Kettl, public units have <<responsible for a system over which they have little control>>.

‘Network governance’ expresses solution <<how self organizing inter-organizational networks>>, operate on one side wit and on the other side without collaboration of government in the context of delivering public services.

This idea expresses modern way of organization of operations toward community as a whole. It is applied without regard for level of activity, which means that can be used both at the local, regional as well as central level. It presents possibility of establishing relationships between public and private sphere and also members of society[34].

4. Conclusion

Notwithstanding the fact that issues presented above, diverge quite, they have some common characteristics. Rules, which are typical for old public administration like bureaucratic are current to this day, some functions characteristics for New Public Management like focus on contracts are common with Public Governance activity. Created on the background of the New Public Management practical aspects, striving for improvement of efficiency and effectiveness public service, therein multitude of indicators and measurements, are insufficient and require quest of relationships between society and state, which is present in Public Governments assumptions[35].

Process of evolution of public management and public administration has led to many changes toward perception of delivering public service, both in terms of many governments as well as differentiated societies. Over time changed not only process of functioning of public sector organizations but also their attitude to community, which nowadays fundamentally creates standard of social service.

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2. Basu R., Nature and scope of public administration [in:] Public Administration: Concepts and Theories, Sterling Publishers Private, New Delhi 2004.

3. Chaston I., Preface [in:] Public sector management. Mission impossible? Palgrave Macmillan, London 2011.

4. Christensen T., Laegreid P., Introduction [in:] The Ashgate Research Companion to New Public Management, Ashgate Publishing Ltd., Burlington 2011.

5. Czarnek P., Zasada państwa prawa [in:] Zasady ustroju III Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej, Dudek D. (ed.) Oficyna a Wolters Kluwer business, Warszawa 2009.

6. Denhardt J. V., Denhardt R. B., Public Administartion and The New Public Management [in:] The New Public Service, Serving not steering, Third edition, M. E. Sharpe, Inc., Armonk 2009.

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12. Holzer M., Schwester R. W., Public Administration: An Indispensable Part of Society [in:] Public Administration. An Introduction, M. E. Sharpe, Inc., Armonk 2011.

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14. Kowalczyk L., Współczesne zarządzanie publiczne jako wynik procesu zmian w podejściu do administracji publicznej [in:] Zeszyty Naukowe Wałbrzyskiej Wyższej Szkoły Zarządzania i Przedsiębiorczości Nr 11. Refleksje społeczno-gospodarcze, Wydawnictwo Wałbrzyskiej Wyższej Szkoły Zarządzania i Przedsiębiorczości, Wałbrzych 2008.

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17. Liebert S., Condrey S. E., Goncharov D., Hungarian Public Administration: From Transition to Consolidation [in:] Public Administration in Post-Communist Countries. Former Soviet Union, Central and Eastern Europe, and Mongolia, CRC Press Taylor and Francis Group, Florida 2013.

18. Łukomska-Szarek J., Włóka M., Theoretical Aspects of New Public Management, ‘Oraldyn Fylym Zarsysy nr 10(46)’ 2012.

19. Mazur S., Olejniczak K., Rola organizacyjnego uczenia się we współczesnym zarządzaniu publicznym [in:] Organizacje uczące się. Model dla administracji publicznej, Olejniczak K. (ed.), Wydawnictwo Naukowe Scholar, Warszawa 2012.

20. Montana P.J., Charnov B. H., What is management: definition and overview [in:] Management. Classical management theory. Organizational structures. Human resource management. Work group dynamics and much more, Barron’s Educational Series, Inc., Hauppauge 2008.

21. Noworól A., Rozwój podsystemu zarządzania terytorialnego [in:] Planowanie rozwoju terytorialnego w skali regionalnej i lokalnej, Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego, Kraków 2007.

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24. Ongaro E., The reform of public management in napoleonic states: issues and research questions [in:] Public management reform and modernization. Trajectories of administrative change in Italy, France, Greece, Portugal and Spain, Edward Elgar Publishing Limited, Cheltenham 2009.

25. Osborne S. P., Introduction. The (New) Public Governance: a suitable case for treatment [in:] The New Public Governance? Emerging perspectives on the theory and practice of public governance, Routledge, New York 2010.

26. Piwowarski R., Reguły fiskalne oraz instrumenty nowego zarządzania publicznego jako narzędzia przejrzystej polityki fiskalnej, ‘Economic Studies Nr 3 (LXX) 2011’.

27. Pollit Ch., Bouckaert G., Comparative public management reform: an introduction to the key debates [in:] Public management reform. A comparative analysis – New Public Management, Governance and The Neo-Weberian State. Third edition, Oxford Univerity Press, New York 2011

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29. Schwella E., Introduction to public management [in:] Public management, Wissink H., Schwella E., Fox W. (ed.), African Sun Media, Stellenbosch 2004.

30. Stępkowski A., Konstytucjonalizacja kontroli władzy publicznej [in:] Zasada proporcjonalności w europejskiej kulturze prawnej. Sadowa kontrola władzy dyskrecjonalnej w nowoczesnej Europie, LIBER, Warszawa 2010.

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[1] P. J. Montana, B. H. Charnov, What is management: definition and overview [in:] Management. Classical management theory. Organizational structures. Human resource management. Work group dynamics and much more, Barron’s Educational Series, Inc., Hauppauge 2008, p.2. See also: R. Kreitner, The management challenge [in:] Management, SOUTH-WESTERN CENGAGE Learning, Canada 2008, p. 5.

[2] Ch. Williams, Introduction to management [in:] Management. 6 edition, SOUTH-WESTERN CENGAGE Learning, Ohio 2010, p. 8.

[3] D. Samson, R. L. Daft, The changing world of management [in:] Introduction to management [in:] Management. Fourth Asia Pacific Edition, SOUTH-WESTERN CENGAGE Learning, South Melbourne 2011, p. 10.

[4] J. V. Denhardt, R. B. Denhardt, Public Administartion and The New Public Management [in:] The New Public Service, Serving not steering, Third edition, M. E. Sharpe, Inc., Armonk 2009, p. 10. See also: J. E. Lane, Introduction, Public Institutions and Interests [in:] The Public Sector: Concepts, Models and Approaches, Third edition, Sage Publications Ltd., London 2000, p. 6.

[5] A. Frączkiewicz – Wronka, Istota zarządzania publicznego [in:] Zarządzanie publiczne w teorii i praktyce ochrony zdrowia, ABC a Wolters Kluwer business, Warszawa 2009, p. 30-31.

[6] N. Flynn, The public sector in the United Kingdom [in:] Public sector management. Sixth edition, SAGE Publications Ltd., London 2012, p. 3.

[7] I. Chaston, Preface [in:] Public sector management. Mission impossible? Palgrave Macmillan, London 2011.

[8] Ch. Pollit, G. Bouckaert, Comparative public management reform: an introduction to the key debates [in:] Public management reform. A comparative analysis – New Public Management, Governance and The Neo-Weberian State. Third edition, Oxford Univerity Press, New York 2011, p. 3.

[9] E. Ongaro, The reform of public management in napoleonic states: issues and research questions [in:] Public management reform and modernization. Trajectories of administrative change in Italy, France, Greece, Portugal and Spain, Edward Elgar Publishing Limited, Cheltenham 2009, p. 2.

[10] K. Olejniczak, Ewaluacja w reformach zarządzania sektorem publicznym [in:] Praktyka ewaluacji w sektorze publicznym [in:] Mechanizmy wykorzystania ewaluacji. Studium ewaluacji średniookresowych. Interreg III, Wydawnictwo Naukowe Scholar, Warszawa 2008, p. 65.

[11] S. Mazur, K. Olejniczak, Rola organizacyjnego uczenia się we współczesnym zarządzaniu publicznym [in:] Organizacje uczące się. Model dla administracji publicznej, K. Olejniczak (ed.), Wydawnictwo Naukowe Scholar, Warszawa 2012, p. 26.

[12] J. Hermaszewski, Zarządzanie procesowe w samorządzie terytorialnym [in:] Gospodarka lokalna w teorii i praktyce, R. Brol, A. Sztando (ed.), Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Ekonomicznego we Wrocławiu, Wrocław 2011, p. 1.

[13] L. Kowalczyk, Współczesne zarządzanie publiczne jako wynik procesu zmian w podejściu do administracji publicznej [in:] Zeszyty Naukowe Wałbrzyskiej Wyższej Szkoły Zarządzania i Przedsiębiorczości Nr 11. Refleksje społeczno-gospodarcze, Wydawnictwo Wałbrzyskiej Wyższej Szkoły Zarządzania i Przedsiębiorczości, Wałbrzych 2008, p. 5.

[14] W. Goldstein, Political Power [in:] Defending the Human Spirit. Jewish Law’s Vision for a Moral Society, Feldheim Publishers, Israel 2006, p. 44.

[15] P. Czarnek, Zasada państwa prawa [in:] Zasady ustroju III Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej, D. Dudek (ed.) Oficyna a Wolters Kluwer business, Warszawa 2009, p. 159.

[16] T. Bąkowski, Pomocniczość w obszarze prawa [in:] Administracyjnoprawna sytuacja jednostki w świetle zasady pomocniczości, Oficyna a Wolters Kluwer business, Warszawa 2007, p. 65.

[17] A. Stępkowski, Konstytucjonalizacja kontroli władzy publicznej [in:] Zasada proporcjonalności w europejskiej kulturze prawnej. Sadowa kontrola władzy dyskrecjonalnej w nowoczesnej Europie, LIBER, Warszawa 2010, p. 179.

[18] S. Liebert, S.E. Condrey, D. Goncharov, Hungarian Public Administration: From Transition to Consolidation [in:] Public Administration in Post-Communist Countries. Former Soviet Union, Central and Eastern Europe, and Mongolia, CRC Press Taylor and Francis Group, Florida 2013, p. 279.

[19] H. Izdebski, Od administracji publicznej do public governance [in:] Zarządzanie publiczne 01/2007, Wydawnictwo Naukowe Scholar, Warszawa 2007, p. 10.

[20] E. Schwella, Introduction to public management [in:] Public management, H. Wissink, E. Schwella, W. Fox (ed.), African Sun Media, Stellenbosch 2004, p. 2.

[21] S. F. Goldfinch, Introduction [in:] International Handbook of Public Management Reform, S. F. Goldfinch, J. L. Wallis (ed.), Edward Elgar Publishing Limited, Cheltenham 2009, p. 3.

[22] S. Mazur, K. Olejniczak, Rola…, op. cit., p. 28-29.

[23] M. Holzer, R. W. Schwester, Public Administration: An Indispensable Part of Society [in:] Public Administration. An Introduction, M. E. Sharpe, Inc., Armonk 2011, p. 32.

[24] R. Basu, Nature and scope of public administration [in:] Public Administration: Concepts and Theories, Sterling Publishers Private, New Delhi 2004, p. 2.

[25] L. J. O’Toole Jr., K. J. Meier, Public management and performance: an evidence based perspective [in:] Public management: organizations, governance, and performance, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, New York 2011, p. 2.

[26] E. Ongaro, The reform of public…, op. cit., p. 2.

[27] L. Kowalczyk, Współczesne zarządzanie…, op. cit., p. 5.

[28] J. Łukomska-Szarek, M. Włóka, Theoretical Aspects of New Public Management, ‘Oraldyn Fylym Zarsysy nr 10(46)’ 2012, p. 50.

[29] A. Noworól, Rozwój podsystemu zarządzania terytorialnego [in:] Planowanie rozwoju terytorialnego w skali regionalnej i lokalnej, Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego, Kraków 2007, p. 84.

[30] Ch. Pollit, G. Bouckaert, Comparative…, op. cit., p. 10.

[31] T. Christensen, P. Laegreid, Introduction [in:] The Ashgate Research Companion to New Public Management, Ashgate Publishing Ltd., Burlington 2011, p. 3.

[32] S. Mazur, K. Olejniczak, Rola organizacyjnego…, op. cit., p. 36.

[33] S. P. Osborne, Introduction. The (New) Public Governance: a suitable case for treatment [in:] The New Public Governance? Emerging perspectives on the theory and practice of public governance, Routledge, New York 2010, p. 6-7.

[34] L. Kowalczyk, Współczesne zarządzanie…, op. cit., p. 10.

[35] R. Piwowarski, Reguły fiskalne oraz instrumenty nowego zarządzania publicznego jako narzędzia przejrzystej polityki fiskalnej, ‘Economic Studies Nr 3 (LXX) 2011’, p. 261.