V. O. Shpakovsky, Ph. D. in History, S. A.
Timoshina, Associate Professor
Penza State University, Russia
THE EFFIGIES AND BRASS AS THE
HISTORICAL SOURCE
Effigie
(from Lat. “effigy”) are sculpted tombstones, the images of the deceased, made
of stone, wood or metal. In the Middle Ages, those sculptures were made prone,
kneeling or standing. They were placed over the burial place of knights or
nobles. There were frequently paired effigies - figures of a husband and a wife
(and even a wife with two husbands at once!). Besides, there might be a
completely flat image, made of brass or bronze plates. They were put on the
surface of stone tombstone - "brass" (from English – “brass”). Some
of the effigies were originally made of wood, and then they were painted while
others were coated with a thin metal sheet. The type
of effigies with recumbent statues was called gizants (from French – “gésir”).
The
importance of effigies as a historical source is extremely high, as they are
the rarest monuments of medieval chivalric culture which are also well
preserved. Authentic samples of weapons and especially armor of XII-XIV
centuries were found very rare.
Effigies
differ from miniatures, as they were made in full height. A lot of them are
damaged, however, they survived better than, for example, statues on the city
squares.
The
earliest sculptural depiction of this type is believed to be a figure of
Geoffrey Plantagenet with armor and a shield , which is exhibited in the Museum
de Tess (Le Mans) at present. The plate dates back to 30 years after he was awarded
with a shield decorated with golden lions, which was considered the earliest
known emblem [1, P.11]. Accordingly, his grandson William Longspi also received
effigy in the Cathedral of Salisbury, dating from about 1230-1240 years [2, P.9],
even though he died in 1226. The images of their shields are usually given as the
examples of the first real inheritage of stamp board color from the previous
owner to the next one.
However,
according to some other British historians, there had been the earlier effigies,
for example, the sculptures of Robert Berkeley in Bristol Cathedral, 1170 [3];
Geoffrey de Mandeville, first Earl of Essex, 1185 (although he died in 1144!), in
London Temple Church; William Marshal, the second Earl of Pembroke (ibid. -
1231) [4, P.7], and a lot of others, including many nameless. A lot of effigies
appeared in the XIII - XIV centuries, though they had been made later on. In
all those sculptures we can see knights in full gear, swords, daggers and
shields, and the head of some figures is placed on a special pad, and the others
have a combat helmet just below or near the head.
It was
the effigies that became one of the main sources of information about the
knight arms in the book written by C. Gravett
"Knights. History of English chivalry" [5 ]. It was published in
Russia by the publishing house "Aksmo" in 2010 (the title of the original
book in English is "Noble Warrior of England 1200-1600", 2008).
Effigies played an important role as an information source in "Weapons and
armor of the Crusading Era, 1050 - 1350" by of D. Nicolle (the first
volume was about armored knights of Western Europe) [6].
Effigies
as a historical source allow determining the exact time and place of certain
cross and pommel with handles of swords, what helmets and helmet-mounted
decorations the knights had and, which shields, and armour robes they wore. Consider,
for example, the sculpture of Geoffrey de Mandeville, which C. Gravette relates
to 1250 [5, P. 71]. It is not important if the date is correct or not. It is interesting
to note that the typical "head-pan" on the head of the sculpture had
a strange "chin" resembling a metal plate, or a thick leather belt. We
can see a similar helmet in the miniature depicting the murder of Thomas Becket,
made by the end of XII or at the beginning of XIII century. But if the band was
metal the helmet could not be put on your head! Unfortunately, his effigy was
quite badly damaged, so that question cannot be clarified. Let’s study the two sculptures
from the west pediment of the Cathedral in Wales, dating back to 1230 [7, P.26].
The helmet of the left sculpture has a single viewing slot for both eyes and 12
vertical slots for breathing on each
side. The shield is almost triangular with a shield boss, so we can assume that
shield bosses on the boards were still in use at that time. Both effigies and
metal brass tombstones had chain-mail fabric that was the cause of a number of
ingenious hypotheses about the possible types of chain mail they depict. However,
it is believed at present that there was really only one kind of woven chain
mail, and "bands" depicted in sculptures were really different ways
of weaving options, for example, the
standard version was 1: 4, and the denser was 1: 8. In some cases, it could be
a leather belt passed through a series of rings for greater rigidity and
strength of the chain-mail fabric, and nothing more, as, at least, the British
historians believe and, in particular, K. Blair[8, P.28]. The nameless effigy in Pershore Abbey in Worcestershire (about
1270-1280's.) is well known for that fact that we can see bonded straps breastplate
in the side slots of its surcoat [7, P.78]. That is, those breastplates were already worn
at that time, but it's not clear what material they were made of because they
could be both leather and metal. The same breastplate can be seen on the
sculpture of Gilbert and Marshall, the fourth Earl of Pembroke, who died in
1241, that is, knights’ breastplates obviously appeared in England in the
middle of the XIII century. By the way, knee plates can easily be seen on his
knees, so they were worn at that time. This fact is proved by several
sculptures of that time. The skills of Spanish armourers can be seen on the
examples of effigies whose mail sleeves were woven together with a chain mail
gloves and the sculpture has plate knee pads on its feet [9, P.14]. But the Danish
knights, according to effigy of Berger Person (d.1327, the cathedral of
Uppsala), still continued to use the old-fashioned chain armor without any
plate additions even after 100 years [10,
P.11].
The effigy of sir Robert Shurlund of Minster on the Isle of Sheppey (about 1320-1335's.)
is valuable because firstly, it shows the inner surface of the shield and the
belt by which it was held, and secondly, the sculpture is dressed up in quilted
jupon, but it hard to know if it has a mail [5, P.97].
It is well known that at the end of the XIII
century the chains became popular among the knights. They were attached to the
handles of swords and daggers, apparently in order to not to lose them. But pictures
do not show how they were attached. The brass of sir Roger de Trumpington of
the church in Cambridgeshire (about 1326) clearly shows that the chain of the
helmet is attached to a rope belt [11, P.10], it was a very early example of
such an innovation.
The effigy of John de Northwood (about
1330) of Minster abbey on the Isle of Sheppey (Kent) has the chain which clings
to helmet by a hook protruding from the socket on the chest [12]. But later the
effigies had those sockets paired, either those chains passed through the slots
on the dress and were fixed in some way on the chain mail, or on the
breastplate, which is likely to be closer to the truth. There were no folds in
the attaching point of the chain but they should be there. Then, as in the case
of mounting them to the chain mail they should be. Interestingly, since the
beginning of XIII - until the end of the XIV century, those chains can be seen
almost on every statue, especially in Germany, where they were the most
popular. And there were often not three, but four chains, but why the fourth
chain was attached is not absolutely clear [13, P.201, 454]. Of course, it's
hard to imagine that a person could successfully fight being wound by a four-foot chain (and it was often
gold!), with which the hilt was also attached to his chest. It might be wrapped
around his hand, in which he held the sword, be tripped over his horse’s head
or the weapon of his neighbor. And then, if the knight lost his sword during a
fierce and long battle on the horseback, it was quite clear that the chain might
snarl in the stirrup or legs of anyone who would be nearby. However, although
the risk of such an event was rather high, according to English "master of
swords" Ewart Oakeshott, the knights ignored it or they knew what to do
not to mix up all these dangling chains in the same way as we zip up our jeans today
without any hassle [14, P. 317].
Effigies also show that knights’ clothes
usually had a heraldic character, since we can see the coats of arms on the
boards and on the clothes of many statues.
Effigies
demonstrate such element of knightly weapons as shoulder pads – ailettes (a
small board of wood or parchment worn at the shoulder and usually painted with
heraldic arms). They were used some time as an element of identification, along
with a shield, dress and horse trappings. The most popular illustration of
their use is the figure of William de Setwans (Charham, Kent, about 1322).
However, it can not show what they depict. In this regard, their picture on the
tombstone of Lambert de Eby (about 1312) is much more evident, which clearly shows
a visible image of the knight’s coat of arms; it was also depicted on his
shield.
Since wearing the "naked" armour was
considered indecent for a long time, that tradition was shown in many effigies.
It was often not only a coat-sleeve, but real clothes, under which the armor
itself was almost invisible.
The effigies allow us to understand that the
knights were in the habit of wearing more than one helmets at the same time.
They wore two helmets putting one on the other. And one of them was the
"grand helm" with slits for the eyes and the vents, it covered the
face entirely, while the other was basinet. It had a recess for a face, so it was not easy to hit the knight by
the blow on the head!
Effigies show that there were the first solid-armor
cuirass with two halves and "skirt bell" of the metal strips in 1400.
That armor differed from the classic
"white armor" by the old-fashioned chain-mail hood with a mail coif closing
the shoulders, and partly the chest and the back. It is not known what was
beneath, but the reasons according which it was later abandoned are quite
clear. The chain rings were a real "trap" for the spear, and it was
necessary to allow it to slip from armor.
Interestingly, the visor on the basinet helmets
appeared even earlier than solid-armor, and the knights wore stand-up collars,
metal-chin defending the neck from hitting by the spear already in the middle
of the XIV century. According to the plaque of Sir Hugh Hastings of St. Mary's
Church in Elsing (Norfolk), we can tell that the knight wore that chin -
buviger and basinet helmet with a visor on the two side loops in 1367, and,
apparently, such armor was quite satisfying at that time. Although, this
buviger was again mounted on top of his shoulder collar of the chain mail [15, P.28]!
A plate located on the sarcophagus of Don
Alvaro de Cabrera Jr. of the Church of Santa Maria in Lerida, Catalonia has a stand-up
collar and his body is now in the Metropolitan Museum in New York. It can
clearly be seen that the collar is attached to the Mantle of tissue, which,
according to the heads of rivets, was knocked out of the metal plates! And a
figure of Bernardo de Minoris (about 1330) of the Church of Santa Maria de la
Seo, Manresa, Spain has the same stand-up collar which means that it was widely
spread at this time [16, P. 139,422].
But still, one of the most unusual effigies
is located in England at the church in Kensington, although there is nothing
special about it at first glance. The fact that is the figure of the unknown
knight is dressed in monastic hood [17, P.6]. And the question if he wore it
permanently or became a monk before his death that was shown by the sculpture
has no answer.
Progress in arms developed so fast that
less than in ten years plate "necklace" on basinets was used in group
effigy of Dutch Lady Margaret and her two husbands - Thomas, Duke of Clarence
(d. 1421) and sir John Beaufort, Earl of Somerset (d. 1410 ), at the cathedral
in Canterbury [18, P.18]. And that steel "collar", covered neck entirely,
it had a characteristic V-shaped rib in the middle. Both sculptures were dressed
in the cloak of "tabard" over their "white armour", leaving
the hands free, but still covering the armor on the torso up to the thighs.
However, the fashion changed slowly but surely, so that the attitude to the
"bare armour" obviously changed by 1410, that can be seen in effigies
showing us the knights who did not have even a shred of the fabric on the armor.
However, some knights wore the same 'tabard' with heraldic images later in the
XVI century. So saying that "everything new is well forgotten old",
was, apparently, also relevant at that time!
As for the most famous effigy in England, it
is, of course, the sculpture of Edward, Prince of Wales, the eldest son of King
Edward III, nicknamed the "Black Prince", who died in 1376 and was
buried in Canterbury Cathedral [19, P.5]. By the way, there is an image of
black shield with three white ostrich feathers in his sarcophagus. That is the
so-called "Peace Shield" intended for the tournament and it was not
the black color of his armor but the shield gave the nickname "Black
Prince" because, according to the effigies, he wore a heraldic jupon
decorated with France lilies and leopards of Britain over their armor! Thus,
the serious study of knightly weapons in Western Europe without recourse to
effigies as a historical source is simply impossible.
Notes:
1.
Слейтер С. Геральдика. Иллюстрированная энциклопедия. Издание второе,
переработанное и дополненное / Пер.И.Жилинской. - М.: Эксмо, 2006.
2. Gravett C. English Medieval
Knight 1200-1300. - UK. L.: Osprey (Warrior series №48), 2002.
3. The Medieval Combat Society
/Twelfth to Fourteenth Century Armour/Monumental Effigy and Brass Timeline -
localhost/F:/12th%20to%2014th%20Century%20Armour.mht
4.Wise T. Armies of the
Crusades. UK. L.: Osprey (Man-at-Arms series №75), 1991.P.7
5.
Граветт К. Рыцари: история английского рыцарства 1200-1600/ Кристофер Граветт:
[пер. с англ. А. Колина]. - М.:Эксмо, 2010. - 312с.
6. Nicolle D. Arms and Armour
of the Crusading Era, 1050-1350. Western Europe and the Crusaders States. UK. L.:
Greenhill Books, 1999. – 636 p.
7. Nicolle D. The Third
Crusade 1191. UK. L.: Osprey (Cаmpaign series
№161), 2006.
8.Блэр
К. Рыцарские доспехи Европы. Универсальный обзор музейных коллекций/Пер. с
англ. Е.
В. Ломановой. - М.: Центрполиграф,
2006.
9. Wise T. Armies of the
Crusades. UK. L.: Osprey (Man-at-Arms series №75), 1991.
10. Lindholm D., Nicolle D.
The Scandinavian Baltic Crusades 1100-1500. UK. L.: Osprey (Man-at-Arms series
№436), 2007.
11.Gravett C. English Medieval
Knight 1300-1400. UK. L.: Osprey (Warrior series №58), 2002.
12.The Medieval Combat Society
/Twelfth to Fourteenth Century Armour/Monumental Effigy and Brass Timeline -
localhost/F:/12th%20to%2014th%20Century%20Armour.mht
13.Nicolle D. Arms and Armour
of the Crusading Era, 1050 – 1350. UK. L.: Greenhill Books. Vol.1.
14.
Окшотт Э. Археология оружия. От бронзового века до эпохи Ренессанса // Перевод
с англ. М.К.Якушиной. М.: Центрполиграф, 2004.
15.Gravett C. English Medieval
Knight 1300-1400. UK. L.: Osprey (Warrior series №58), 2002.
16. Nicolle D. Arms and Armour
of the Crusading Era, 1050-1350. Western Europe and the Crusaders States. UK.
L.: Greenhill Books, 1999.
17.Nicolle D. Knight
Hospitaller (2) 1306 – 1565. UK. L.: Osprey (Warrior series №41), 2001.
18.Gravett C. English Medieval
Knight 1400-1500. UK. L.: Osprey (Warrior series №35), 2001.
19.Gravett C. English Medieval Knight 1300-1400. UK. L.: Osprey (Warrior series №58), 2002.