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«ÐÃÝÓ (ÐÈÍÕ)»
THE ROLE OF ENGLISH IN THE FORMATION OF A COSMOPOLITAN
IDENTITY.
Abstract:
Language and culture are interconnected, which
situates English as a tool for influence, persuasion, and a subtle form of
colonization to concepts proper to Western societies. Indeed, language is more
than communication: It represents experience and social attitudes and links
knowledge with demands for group worth. The article is a reflection on how
globalization shakes traditional obedience networks based on gender, how it
impacts cultural change, and how it typifies seats of resistance.
Another important consequence of globalization is the
creation of a global consumer culture and a large group of consumers
for whom
a cosmopolitan identity constitutes an important part of their self-concept.
Key
words: Cosmopolitan identity, participatory action science,
gender, institutional learning, language, culture, educational policy, ELT,
foreign language education.
Words bring with them inevitable distortions. They are
linked to intentionality, metaphorical networks, and connotative meanings. For
Smith, ― the word globalization is substituted for the word
imperialism‖. Kwame Anthony Appiah notes that the word
―globalization‖ has evolved from its use in marketing strategies to
its role in macroeconomics, and ―now can seem to encompass everything,
and nothing‖ [1]. Appiah elects ―cosmopolitanism‖ as the word
of choice for an ethics in a world of strangers. While we should remain
critical about global forces when they are imposed in a top-down fashion, more
grassroot trends based on individual initiatives may target increased
communication and be situated on sane and fruitful ground. Situations are often
blurred and complex.
The identity-salience principle asserts that increases
in the salience of an identity within a person's self-concept increase the
likelihood of subsequent identity-driven attitudes and behavior. Because language
is intimately related to culture, language cues are one means of increasing the
temporary salience of a cultural identity and of thereby increasing the
influence of that culture on cognitions and behavior. Among biculturals,
exposure to words in a particular language activates the mental frames of the
culture with which that language is associated. A growing body of work
demonstrates that bicultural individuals think differently when they speak
different languages [2]. The potential influence of language on identity
salience is highlighted by the emergence of English as today's lingua franca.
An increasing number of messages in English (brand names, slogans, product
package information, etc.) reach consumers who are not native English speakers.
For example, in many countries a very large percentage of advertising messages
feature at least some words in English [3]. More research is needed to explore
the influence of English being used in marketing messages in countries where
English is not the native language of most consumers [4].
Another important consequence of globalization is the
creation of a global consumer culture and a large group of consumers for whom a
cosmopolitan identity constitutes an important part of their self-concept [5].
Whereas much literature in this area focuses on individual differences and
conceptualizes global and local consumer culture as the opposite ends of a
single bipolar continuum, identification with a local culture and
identification with a global culture are best understood as separate processes
that are at least partially independent [6]. Many individuals are likely to
endorse both a local and a global culture, at least to some degree, and to have
both mental frames available to them [7]. For example, Jan-Benedict E.M. [8] used a priming procedure to increase the
accessibility of either a local consumer identity or a global consumer
identity, and they were able in that way to produce differences in the
subjects' expressed preferences for local and global brands. Linking these
areas of research, we propose that the English language may often serve as a
cue for a person's cosmopolitan identity. For example, Alden et al. [7] argue
that because “English has come to signal modernism and internationalism to many
consumers” an important way for brands to communicate their position in a
global consumer culture is to “use English words, written and/or spoken, in
[their] communications” [11]. In other words, in the same way as Chinese has
been shown to cause Chinese-English bilinguals to “think Chinese” [12], it
seems plausible that English may sometimes cause Dutch consumers, for example,
to “think global”. If this reasoning is correct, what are the likely
consequences for this new breed of “bicultural” consumers of being confronted
with messages in English? The features of a cosmopolitan identity may vary
among people of different generations in different countries. In some contexts,
a cosmopolitan identity is likely to be associated with tolerant and ecumenical
values. In these cases, we predict that individuals may display less
discrimination and bias in an English-language environment. In some other
contexts, a cosmopolitan identity may be strongly associated with the US
culture and values. In these cases, exposure to English may trigger, for
example, a more individualistic self-construal. Another interesting area for
future research is the way language activates consumer culture among
individuals depending on whether global and local consumer cultures are in a harmonious
relationship or a conflicting relationship. In many countries, global consumer
culture is often portrayed as being in conflict with traditional (e.g.,
religious) values. In such cases, it is possible that English may trigger more
complex identity effects for some consumers. In particular, for consumers who
experience global consumer culture and local consumer cultures as conflicting,
it is possible that English leads to behaviors that are consistent with local
culture rather than with the global consumer culture [13].
That is not to say that there are no ethnic or
national characteristics, no commonalities among persons that distinguish them
from others. There clearly are. But pointing that out is no refutation of
cosmopolitanism or of a theory of identity consistent with cosmopolitanism.
Indeed, it would be impossible to recognize the common nature of humanity in
the absence of any identifiable differences; the “same” cannot be recognized
without the “other,” the “one” without the “many.” Recognizing that we adopt
beliefs and self-understandings that we believe to be true, useful,
interesting, moral, amusing, and so on from other persons, other cultures, and
other languages is not shameful; it is just a recognition of reality.
In particular, for consumers who experience global
consumer culture and local consumer cultures as conflicting, it is possible
that English leads to behaviors that are consistent with local culture rather
than with the global consumer culture.
The Spread of
English and the Growth of International Linguicism Likewise, the role of
English is questioned as it improves global communication but leads to the
inscription of an unregulated market ideology that has created disasters and
worldwide injustice. Bourdieu [11] called power-laden social interactions
social capital; according to social capital theory, the exercise of power
through language and culture can be considered linguistic capital and cultural
capital, respectively [14]. We will explore language policies as discourse and
practice, since ―language policy debates are always about more than
language‖ [15]. One impact of the internationalization of English in
wealthy countries has been a form of language discrimination related with the
hierarchizing of languages in terms of their economic importance. Linguicism, a
term coined by Skutnabb-Kangas [16] to designate a form of prejudice against
the language of others within nation states, seems now to spread across states
to discriminate languages that are not part of the ‗world game‘.
Linguicism involves judgmental attitudes towards people who do not exhibit
linguistic attributes related to economic, social, educational status on the
basis of their use of language. Peoples are led to interiorize a form of inner
governmentality associated with guilt if they do not develop English
proficiency, which is a key attribute of globalization. Pressure is often
exercised to enforce the global dominance of English in developing countries.
In some cases, parents feel compelled to adopt English at home while they live
in a monolingual society to give better economic chances to their children.
Whether the trend will last if imperial economies are in shambles is arguable.
A survey of the recent percentages of
English speakers worldwide based suggests that the relative percentage
speakers of English is decreasing and the percentage of speakers of English as
a second language is stable [17]. The lack of growth in the percentage of
English speakers is due to various factors, such as attrition, lack of
proficient and well-trained teachers, the bad image of the American and
Anglo-world at large outside the Commonwealth, and the growth of populations
speaking languages other than English [18]. The idea that English will become
the world language is a nicely funded myth [19]. Presently, 85% of the speakers
of this planet do not speak English and there is no indication that their
percentage might change significantly during the coming decade, despite
inflated claims, perceptions have recently
evolved towards more realistic figures. The world will probably evolve towards
a basket of regional and continental languages, with a growing distinction
between varieties of Englishes that will gain increasing autonomy departing
from the British and American linguistic poles. The issues raised by
international linguicism and discriminatory language status may diminish over
time, which entails providing wiser forms of education and avoiding
propaganda-based textbooks. Language status is a form of language ideology that
attributes certain linguistic marks to the worldwide trends that characterize
being ‗modern‘ and ‗globally educated‘. Contrary to
cosmopolitanism, whose ideology tends to be respectful of otherness, the
perception of language status is hierarchical and is based on the authority
conferred by a privileged language. How second language speakers and
prospective teachers of English deal with the evolving ambiguities of their
language status is an important focus.
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1.
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© M.S.Tatulyan,
2018.