Философия/ 2. Социальная философия

К.филос.н. Васильева Н.А.

Иркутская государственная сельскохозяйственная академия, Россия

Loneliness as one of factors social anomie

N. A. Vasilieva

Irkutsk state agricultural academy

In the given article the theoretical model of loneliness as a phenomenon is presented, and loneliness is considered to be one of the factors of subjective anomie.

Loneliness has been taken as a unique experience. One of the most vivid features of loneliness is a specific feeling of deep absorption in oneself. There is a cognitive moment in loneliness: it reports to me who I am in the life. Marking out phenomenological and cognitive elements leads to understanding that loneliness is a special form of self-consciousness.

Loneliness can be determined as an experience, provoking a complex and strong feeling that expresses the definite form of consciousness and shows a split between real relations and connections of the inner world of personality [1]. The given conception of loneliness was offered by W. A. Sadler and T. B. Johnson, and it is shared by the author.

The conception gives ground to investigate the question fruitfully.

The aim of our article is to present a model of the origin of loneliness on the grounds of data explaining man’s loneliness in the modern world, as well as to examine it as one of the factors of subjective anomie.

It is possible to work out a more special definition of loneliness and to analyze its

experience by using different measurings. The definition “measurings’ has a fundamental meaning for our model and it is used in a special sense. Before developing the model of loneliness, it is necessary to give a short description of the phenomenological data, which were used for its building.

In spite of the fact, that requirements of numerous theories of personality’s phenomenology are different, phenomenological direction as a whole, starting from European traditions, has been a typical example of returning to experience for reconstructing of its basic structures (E. Husserl, M. Heidegger, M. Merlo-Ponti, Binsvanger, Shyuts, W.A. Sadler and others). Phenomenology has developed an important comprehension of experience as a feeling with an intentional structure. Paying attention to intentionality, phenomenology emphasizes that experience is not only a subjective (inner) feeling, but it has numerous outer connections and relations. The field of experience is complicated: it includes meanings and values of nature and society. Besides, the field of intentional relations is a dynamic process, where experience is always directed inside the form of correlation.

The life world of personality is orientated, first of all, towards realization of three definite existential opportunities:

the unique destiny of an individual, actualizing the inborn “I” and its limited significance;

traditions and culture of personality, giving to it values and ideas, used for interpretation of its feelings and for determination of its existence;

social environment of an individual, forming the field of organizational relations with other people and the spheres, where the definition of participation in a group and a role function of personality occurs; perception of other people, with whom a man can establish relations “I-You”, that can be developed in dialogic reality “We”.

Proceeding from pluralistic structural ideas about the life world of personality, it is possible to research essential features of different life styles from the point of view of their orientation’s nature according to the opportunities given above and to compare basic aspects of life orientations. The ideas could be the basis of comprehension of personality, social groups and culture; they are also important for understanding of man’s personal development and meaning of different achievements, conflicts and personality’s disappointments.

Let’s go on directly to the analyzed model of the trinomial measuring of loneliness. First the conception “measuring” was used to point at the distinctive spatial-temporal characteristics of the examined life style. Actually it is proved that measuring does more for researching the phenomenon of loneliness. The conception “measuring” is used widely in everyday speech to designate levels of changes’ factors and meanings. In some theoretical works this conception has an additional spatial sense, accentuating difference between superficial and deep levels. In social studies “measuring” is used to determine outer and inner factors. In our context it is an equivalent of special points at particular dynamic opportunities in the pluralistic structure of the personal world. According to the three possible directions inherent in development and diffusion outside the personal world, the measurings of loneliness are also trinomial and they can be determined as

space;

cultural;

social-psychological (subject-subjective).

The proposed model is an attempt to explain the potential field of experience and its complexity, as well as to highlight analytically various meanings, which can be found out in the state of loneliness and which can lead to social anomie. The analyzed materials are descriptions of loneliness’ states in fiction and philosophical literature, special researches on the given problems.

As long ago as it was said in the Old Testament of Ecclesiast: “Man is lonely, and there is no other; he has neither son, nor brother; his work is endless and his eyes aren’t sated with riches” (4:8) [2]. The dramatic effect of loss of life connections with the world, people runs through the whole biblical text that is considered to be almost the first proclamation of existentialistic pessimism. Is this a vivid example of the space measuring of loneliness?

As man realized his connection with his environment and mankind, he opened for himself all the catastrophe of loss of this connection or even of its weakening.

Christianity from the very outset perceived and absorbed in itself the feeling of plaintive loneliness. Christ in his moral perfection stands unachievable higher than his pupils and crowds. That’s why he is as lonely in the desert as in the crowded streets of Jerusalem and among his pupils. As a matter of fact, he is alone in his sacrificial death too.

Motives of worldly loneliness are traced back to the works of church’s fathers, for example, Avrely Augustine considered that the original sin and man’s mortality themselves determined his loneliness, which could be overcome only by striving for God.

The tendency, redoubling worldly isolation of man was announced more distinctly in the early Protestantism (Kalvin) Protestant rigorism left no room for opening the inner world of personality through communication with other people. The only form of communication was recognized – a purely individual dialogue with God. In fact Protestantism sanctified loneliness that, according to its doctrine, made the way to the true faith easier.

Originally refracted motives of Protestant loneliness became one of the initial points of development of the philosophical conception of transcendentalists of the 19^th century (G. D. Toro). Toro wrote that “loneliness isn’t measured in miles, which separate man from his near relations” [3].

Transcendentalists were actually the first in the history of European thought, who began to make distinctions between loneliness and solitude. In the 19^th century the principle of solitude was regarded by romantics and transcendentalists rather as a means of self-defense, because it meant strengthening of personality’s spiritual potential, its social and creative maturity necessary for the following struggle for the just social order. Since then stable dichotomy of loneliness and solitude has become stronger in European philosophical and social thought.

Another conception of loneliness and solitude was offered by Toro’s contemporary, the Dutch theolog and philosopher, S. Kierkegaard. “Loneliness” by

Kierkegaard is a secluded world of inner consciousness, the world, which in principle nobody can open, except for God.

According to Kierkegaard, the impenetrable sphere of self-consciousness was lit up by tragic outbursts of despair, while the stabile position of “I” came to eternal silence.

The philosopher thought that the chaotic protest against life abominations had the only positive outcome – finding a faith, but non-traditional one. The faith by Kierkegaard was purely individual absorbing in the irrational image of God that could be the only interlocutor of the man lost in the world. The main thesis of Kierkegaard virtually can be expressed by the formula: it’s absurdly to believe in God, but just because it’s necessary to believe, for the world is absurd, too.

So, long before A. Camus Kierkegaard brought together loneliness and being’s absurdity, seeing in them inevitable displays of the modern world.

“The inner man” of Kierkegaard, a bearer of torn consciousness, does not want to leave the world of people, like Toro. There is no necessity at all for “the inner man” to do it. From the first he is involved in society as “a stranger”. Substantial strangeness is the most important feature of Kierkegaard’s ideology.

In the work with the distinctive title “The Unhappiest” Kierkegaard compared people with lonely birds in the night silence got together only once to enjoy the sight of life insignificance, day’s sluggishness and endless time’s duration [4].

In these early forms of philosophical comprehension of loneliness inherent in European philosophy of the New Time there were two different interpretations of the given phenomenon, which became apparent completely in the latest culture and philosophy.

Toro’s line, keeping a supply of romantic Utopism and ethical optimism, transformed into neo-romantic ideology of contra-culture, emphasizing alternative forms of consciousness and life order. This tradition namely raised distinctive theories of “collectivity”, which provided for the communal life style that was supposed to keep full outer and inner freedom of every “communer”.

The second tradition, ascending to Kierkegaard in modern philosophy, thanks to Husserl turned into European existentialism.

The idea about consciousness as an endless and continuous stream of experiences constructed particularly, having their own all important laws and principles, absolutely isolated from the outer world and from the material one including, was assumed as the basis of the philosophical theory of Husserl. The process of separating consciousness from objective reality was named “reduction”, whose main part was the so-called “epohe”, i.e. abstention from any expressions about the outer world by concentrating on the analysis of “pure” subjectivity especially.

Phenomenology came across with the problem of loneliness of the human “I”, named as the problem of inter-subjectivity in the history of philosophy, i.e. the problem of possibility or impossibility of theoretical cognitive communication of individuals with other cognizing subjects and recognition of their existence generally.

The paradox is in the fact that phenomenology early or late comes across with the task “to prove” the existence of other people as the centers of consciousness equal to my “I”. Paradoxicality of this condition is explained by the fact that subjectivism issues from one reality – the reality of “I”. Everything else in any case appears as projection or transcendention of a subject outside. Thus, phenomenology can prove the existence of other people as purely physical … objects, but if there is a question about their consciousness, theoretical difficulties appear and the danger of solipsism comes into being, i.e. recognition of total loneliness of a subject in the world.

The universal model of loneliness, presented in Husserl’s phenomenology, was assumed by many philosophers of the 20th century as the basis of understanding of social existence’s phenomena.

More obviously transformation of phenomenology into existential understanding of the problem of loneliness happened in J. - P. Sartre’s works.

Sartre said, “Man isn’t that what he is; man is that what he isn’t”. The outer paradoxicality of the judgment hides the definite philosophical meaning, which maintains general and fundamental man’s dissatisfaction with the world, his discord with himself. According to this formula, man always tries to become “that what he isn’t”, i.e. to overstep the limits of his “I”, to open the ranks of his loneliness. But it is difficult for man to find a deserving contact in this reality; man can’t understand “what he is” actually. That’s why his way to himself, more correctly “into himself”, is attended by understanding of loneliness as an existential situation of man’s being in the world.

Unlike Husserl, Sartre aspired to subject the world. He regarded it as the world consisted of “me” and “the other”. “One of the properties of presence of the other in me is objectivity”, - the philosopher wrote in his essay “Existentialism is humanism” [5]. “The other” interferes in my innermost. As a result “the belonged” to me escapes me because of unasked influence of the other. This total man’s escape from man expresses understanding of inter-personal relations by Sartre. Things, being objects of my world, always lose their intimacy for me, turn into objects of co-possession, i.e. appearance of the other man or especially as community of people is, by Sartre, destruction, crisis, danger. For all this any form of collectivity primarily is doomed to self-destruction – estrangement turns into the universal modus of “being-in-the world”.

Personality’s loneliness in existentialism became the principle of a closed anthropological universe. When personality begins to communicate with the world and others, it collides with objectivity and that leads to loneliness. “Man, - Sartre wrote, - becomes that one, who has been formed by tasks located on his way. Objects are mute requirements, and there is nothing in “I”, except passive obeying these requirements” [6]. The philosopher associated closely man’s loneliness with mute passivity, hopelessness.

Since mutual relations of “me” and “the other” are always in conflict, it is out of the question of any individuals’ community. Repeating the known motives of “egology” of Husserl, Sartre stated, that recognition of subjects’ multitude can’t be given clearly and distinctly to the human mind. Examining the most trivial examples of “community”, the existentialist proves, that solidarity with this community is always illusory, while the feeling of loneliness is deep and being. However deeply man is involved in the feeling of community, he tries to destroy it, keeping loneliness of his “I”.

Sartre’s views were shared in many respects by the other philosopher-existentialist A. Camus.

Proceeding from the statement of absurdity of the human being, he proclaimed the ancient myth about Sisyphus, who was condemned by gods to the heavy and senseless labor and was deprived of support both by people and by gods, as a symbol of “the human state”. Meanwhile Sisyphus’s loneliness confirmed his strength and inner freedom. Camus insisted on, that belief in absurdity became a real compensation of loneliness. Unbelief in the community of people was transformed into affirmation of existential freedom. Freedom by Camus is “a rebellion”, not as an open social protest, but as an outburst of subject’s despair.

Nevertheless Camus recreated another alternative of Sisyphus’s despair - the myth about Prometheus, who sacrificed himself for the welfare of people. The lonely Prometheus personifies tragedy of the universe, but this tragedy is brightened by love, sacrificeness, compassion. Sacrificeness of Prometheus appears as the highest virtue of the human spirit, ennobling the modern man and returning to him the sense of being. Without denying loneliness, the philosopher interpreted it as the mark of Cain of the modern society. And this protest itself gave an impulse to further movement of humanistic thought in search of explanation of man’s being in the world.

Let’s dwell at length on cultural and social-psychological measurings of the given model, because they, in our opinion, throw light on all the complication and actuality of cross-cultural communication in the modern world.

In social sciences the conception of loneliness is used in a conventional sense, representing by itself the inherited system of normative meanings and values that determines decisive elements in inter-subjective relations and life styles. The striking example of the cultural measuring can be found in a typical form of man’s experiences in the modern world. The description of such feelings takes the central place in the classical research E. Fromm “Escape from freedom”.

Trying to show domination of the social in the character of the modern man, Fromm admitted, that the key for understanding people of the new type was in ”the specific man’s attitude to the world” [7]. For different reasons explained in the book, Fromm argues with the opinion that the modern man in the industrial technocratic society “feels weakness and absolute hopelessness” [7]. The author insists on the idea, that new freedom, which man got in the process of his historical liberation from social, economic and religious dependence, “limited appearance of the deep feeling of hopelessness, weakness, loneliness and anxiety” [7]. Though some of these theoretical clauses are problematic and insufficiently grounded, there can be no doubt that Fromm’s descriptions of “the unbearable feeling of loneliness and weakness” were met with generally recognition and approval. Many agreed with the thesis that “man is afraid most of the only thing: isolation” [7].

Fromm examined in detail the situations causing man’s horror before loneliness, isolation. Finding himself in the open sea after ship-wreck, man loses his life much earlier than his physical strength is over. The reason of the premature death is a horror to die in isolation.

Fromm enumerated and analyzed a number of social needs forming a distinctly negative attitude of personality towards loneliness. They are necessity of communication and relations with people, need of self-affirmation, affections, necessity to possess self-consciousness, need of an orientation’s system and necessity to have an object of worship. The feeling of loneliness disrupting personality into discrete parts leads, according to Fromm, to aggression, violence, terrorism, anarchy. Fromm’s philosophy within the bounds of modern western humanism became one of the striking manifests of those who tries to create an alternative to personality’s degradation, tries to gain a foot-hold in the world.

At present it is more important, that Fromm’s ideas attracted attention to the special type of loneliness, which was recognized as widely spread and strongly influencing the modern society. This loneliness underlies the definite forms of estrangement, man’s disconnection with culture and even anomie.

Social sciences hardly touched upon the theme of cultural loneliness, but in the works of literature it is described brilliantly. One of such examples is the novel “The steppe wolf” by G. Hesse. The man described in the novel symbolizes a dilemma of many people who find themselves between two cultures: old and new. His loneliness becomes unbearable, because he has failed to find an asylum in somebody. It’s not the loneliness, which can be overcome by falling in love or making friends; it needs relations of another type. As the personal tragedy of the main character of the novel develops and his tortures grow, his searches of sympathy of the definite kind become futile.

Doing justice to describing examples of this type of loneliness in fiction, it is more important to discover them in our life. Cultural loneliness becomes more apparent, in our opinion, in the situation characterized by anomie, especially if it has subjective influence, as E. Dyurkheim in the work “Suicide” and R. Merton in his research “Social theory and social structure” have supposed. People, feeling inner disorder and perturbation, resulting from disconnection with traditional values and norms, often tell about feeling of loneliness, which they hardly can explain. Many people began to understand their loneliness better after it had been described by them. These people cannot be characterized as persons, suffering from anomie; they experienced cultural loneliness because of immigration or as a result of extensive and rapid changes in religious and social morals. The model gives them an opportunity to determine a source of their suffering.

Cultural loneliness appears also in small groups, when people feel that their connection with own cultural heritage is lost and that conventional culture is unacceptable for their inner world. This type of loneliness exists in societies, where rapid social-economic and political changes happen, for example, in countries of East Europe, South-East Asia, Near East, Central America and in republics of the former USSR. This is an important element in the life of youth, which cannot find their place in their country’s culture. The type of loneliness unites misfortunes and troubles of people by causing suffering from cultural estrangement and crisis of identification’s attempts. The value of our proposed trinomial model of loneliness consists in the opportunity, which it gives people studying cultural loneliness, to concentrate on some separate facts of the situation without loss of their whole totality’s meaning and without displacement of dynamic processes, which should be analytically differentiated.

Sometimes cultural differences destroy social and subject-subjective relations. In such cases difficult models of loneliness appear, for example, in families and other social institutes, where the so-called conflict “fathers and children” exists. Here cultural loneliness furthers sharpening feelings of loneliness in social-psychological and inter-personal measurings, as in a particular case. Complicated feelings of loneliness, demanding regard to its cultural measuring and adequate understanding, become a part of this growing intense conflict. Loneliness in the cultural measuring is experienced most often by scientists, reformers, critics of social orders, especially when they see their differences with widespread cultural trends, trying to come to the values, forgotten and rejected by society. In such cases our model helps researchers and subjects themselves to remember one of the aspects of personality’s disorder, which must be taken into account while choosing the way “against the general current”. No wonder, that history knows radicals and innovators, who accentuated close friendship, because they could risk experiencing loneliness in cultural and social-psychological measurings.

The conception “social-psychological” in the context of the trinomial model of loneliness means the following: it is a construction of organized links, relations, forming a structure, where inside individuals and groups interact. While studying the social-psychological measuring of loneliness the conception “social-psychological” in the first place applicable to special groups in society, and not to the society as a whole. The given kind of loneliness is widely known. Its sharpest forms are designated by such conceptions of social isolation as expulsion, non-acceptance, dismissal, and also some cases are meant, when social exclusion deprives people of membership in groups, which they consider very important for themselves. In another case this type of loneliness can appear when a subject feels non-acceptance by the group. In the examples of space and cultural loneliness an individual feels that his connection, complicity is lost; in the social-psychological measuring of loneliness man feels very sharply that he is pushed away, excluded or else not appreciated. He sees himself the odd man out. This type of loneliness appears most often when individuals’ roles are not taken into account; for example, when man is dismissed from office, excluded from the team, not admitted to the college, club or not given employment to the firm he likes; or when people avoid meeting man because his behavior, social class, group, which he belongs to, are considered to be socially undesirable.

To the enumerated general factors, furthering appearance of social-psychological loneliness, others can be added: increasing breaking out of society together with growing socialization, high mobility, uncertainty of traditional social limits, collapse of traditional groups and short life of groups, which pretend to their place in society, high level of expectation connected with social position, and slighting the point of view of an individual. General observation shows that modern people care about their social position extremely. Doubt, anxiety concerning social identity and meaning of everyday collisions wit other people are added to the trouble about a social status. As for society’s stability, the fact of collapse of many traditional groups seems to be very serious. G. Homans’s warning, sounded in the middle of the 20^th century, is actual now: “The civilization, which destroys small life groups for the sake of progress and growth, will make people lonely and unhappy” [8]. One of the consequences of global social changes consists in appearance of this special type of loneliness on large scales. Unfortunately, its appearance wasn’t taken into account properly while appraising motive forces and consequences of those modern life’s factors, which further significant social changes.

There are a lot of evident examples of social-psychological loneliness of people, who became torn away by society or a social group in consequence of some social changes. These people are labeled as losers, criminals and strangers. However people living not “outside”, but on the society’s border, also feel critical social-psychological loneliness. They need to be included in society; they are the elderly, women, teenagers, the poor and people eccentric by their nature.

Though above-mentioned arguments about measurings of loneliness are incomplete, but they are sufficient to state the nature of this phenomenological model and means, which can be applied by different forms of experiences, still not appreciated from the point of view of “a part of loneliness” in them.

And let’s turn to the short review of social-psychological loneliness in its most private context – subject-subjective relations.

The most important moment in our research is the fact, that people often experience not simply indefinite loneliness. Many experience loneliness in several measurings, without realizing it. Man, when loneliness falls upon him only in one measuring, usually is able to live with it. But when loneliness appears in two or more measurings at the same time, stress reaches serious personality’s disorder, especially if individuals don’t realize its meaning for their personal world and, therefore, cannot fight with it directly. Very often man, experiencing multidimensional loneliness simultaneously, feels hopelessness and weakness, correlated with the sense, that all life links with other people are torn. The offered phenomenological model gives us an opportunity to consider loneliness as a potential source of stress and a cause of individual tragedies in all their complicacy. The problem of anomie is much more complicated than it seems to be at first sight. In our opinion, more often anomie is a consequence of loneliness, which is experienced in two or more measurings of the personal world.

T.B. Johnson, an American sociologist and psychologist, tried to understand, how a group of lonely teenagers, offcast by society, became anomic. He chose at will some young people at the age of 16-25, who left school and were out of regular work. Johnson emphasized marking out individual and social variables of anomie.

During his preparation for research Johnson got to know, that most of boys and girls, came to San-Francisco from other cities of the USA, were depressed, displeased with themselves and lonely. Many of them lived in solitude, taking drugs, prostituting, without wish for using possibilities to get education or a job. While questioning the young people described their feelings as estrangement, spiritual bankruptcy and loneliness. Some of them considered their arrival in the city positively: at that moment they believed, that San-Francisco would give them an opportunity to put an end to their loneliness.

During his research Johnson collided with the cases, when some young people became anomic, but others – not, though they also felt loneliness. He found out, that those of them, who became anomic, had some distinctive characteristics, namely: general non-acceptance of themselves and others, inclination to acts, caused by an outer control. That’s why they believed, that all their life went by thanks to outer factors: influence of God, destiny, devil. They were convinced of, that their own efforts could influence general direction of their life only inconsiderably. On the contrary, those, who were drawn towards acceptance of themselves and others and towards acts under their inner control, considered, that everything, happened with them, depended on themselves to the great degree.

Type and complicacy of loneliness form a differentiating factor of anomie’s appearance.

This point of view will help to make anomie’s conceptions, used in the given research, clear. Some authors described anomie very much like interpretation of estrangement and loneliness. In contrast to loneliness, which is taken as pushing aside some life links or the main source of existence, anomie is a broader phenomenon; it is a general state of being. The conception of anomie, developed by R. Merton [9], Lowe and Damankos [10], is a good psychological addition to the sociological conception of anomie of Dyurkheim [11], put into the idea of social solidarity by the author. So if social solidarity is a state of collective ideological integration, anomie is a state of disorder and illegality. Dyurkheim supposed, that anomie developed when rapid social and economical changes broke order in the social system. Man’s expectations cannot be realized because of these breaches. Frustration of traditional norms and loss of limitations lead to appearance of the feeling that people exist in the void without any orientations. Without gaining a foot-hold, some people get tired of such existence; life loses its sense and value, and, as a result, anomic self-destruction begins [12].

L. Srole [13] first offered to examine anomie as an individual experience. He believed that this process concerned the individual feeling of involving in general anti-gravitation between people, reaching general estrangement from each other. Kloski and Sshaar, following these conclusions, developed later the given conception into understanding of anomie as a brain’s state, a sum of relations, beliefs, feelings in the consciousness of an individual and as the feeling, that the world and man lost stability. The feeling of spiritual bankruptcy is main in this theorie. Using the works of Srole, Klosky and Sshaar, as well as means of the factor analysis, Lowe and Damankos offered to measure anomie. They maintain that the main factors, which condition anomie, are senselessness, depreciation, weakness and estrangement of people. Lowe’s scale includes 22 divisions, such as: “As I see it now, the future is totally empty for me”; “Everything in the world will die”; “However hard you may try, all the same you will come in the end there where you started your way”. (For those, who suffer from anomie, all these statements seem to be right.)

Analyses of the scientific literature on the problem of anomie show, that most researchers examine its social-cultural sources. For example, it was found out, that a low social-economical status, mobility’s sinking, an age, a low level of social concern are important components of anomie. Some scientists tried to find physiological components of anomie, but, as far as we know, nobody examined possible links between loneliness and anomie; even no perspectives were developed in this field.

Suppose logically that those, whose anomie reached a high degree, lost more than one source of personality’s balance. That’s why we think, that loneliness in several measurings foregoes anomie. And, on the contrary, those, who feel loneliness only in one measuring, for example, in the inter-personal one, don’t become anomic.

So, loneliness is the phenomenon typical for man. We showed shortcomings of some approaches to its research by presenting the model of potential loneliness in several measurings, tried to demonstrate efficiency of the model for understanding dynamics of intensive loneliness in appearance of personality’s disorder – anomie.

COMMENTS

1. Sadler, W.A. What is Loneliness? / W.A. Sadler, T.B. Johnson // Labyrinths of Loneliness. – M., 1989. – p. 27.

2. The Bible. The Old Testament. The Book of Ecclesiast, or the Preacher (4:8).

3. Toro, G. D. Walden, or Life in the Woods / G.D. Toro. – M., 1980. p.48.

4. Kierkegaard, S. The Unhappiest / S. Kierkegaard // The North Flowers. – Book 4. - Saint-Petersburg, 1908. – p.38.

5. Sartre, J. - P. Existentialism is humanism / J. - P. Sartre. – Paris, 1946. – p.48.

6. Sartre, J. - P. Being and Nothing / J. - P. Sartre. – Paris, 1943. – p.721.

7. Fromm, E. Escape from Freedom / E. Fromm. – M., 1995. – p.9; p.219; p.53; p.15.

8. Homans G.C. The Human Group. – New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1950. – p.457.

9.Merton R.K. Anomie, Anomia and Social Interaction: Contexts of Deviant Behavior. – In: Anomie and Deviant Behavior: A Discussion and Critique. Ed. M.B. Clinard. Glencoe, III.: Free Press, 1964.

10. Lowe C.M. & Damankos F.J. Psychological and Sociological Dimensions of Anomie in a Psychiatric Population. J. Soc. Psychol., 74, 65-74, 1968.

11. Dyurkheim, E. About Division of Social Labour / E. Dyurkheim. - Saint-Petersburg, 1900.

12. Dyurkheim, E. Suicide / E. Dyurkheim. - Saint-Petersburg, 1912.

13. Srole L. Social Intergration and Certain Corollaries. Amer. Soc. Rev., 21, 709-716, 1956.